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May 2001 © Barbara Frances Parker, 2001 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1̂ 1 National Library Bibliothèque nationale of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your Ale Votro référênco O urfüe Notre réfénncB The author has granted a non­ L’auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive Ucence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library o f Canada to BibUothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfîche/fihn, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L’auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d’auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts firom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author’s ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. 0-612-60860-3 Canada Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A b strac t i This thesis exam ines w om en 's involvem ent in o rg an iz in g a ro u n d w om en 's health in no rthw estern O ntario fro m 1980 until 1992. By constructing a social h isto ry of the key g ro u p s - the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee (1980-82), the W om en's H ealth A ction G roup (W H A G , 1982-85), the W o m en 's H ealth E ducation Project (WHEP, 1982-85), a nd the W o m en 's H ealth In fo rm ation N etw ork (W HIN, 1985-1992), I establish a socio-historical context for an an a ly sis of the construction of identity an d p rax is fo r the w om en activ ists in this social m ovem ent. I argue th a t a fem inist p o s tm o d e rn analysis h e lp s to uncover h o w the w om en 's collective a n d indiv idual iden tities w ere m ultip le , sh ifting an d flu id as w ell as contingent o n the complex s itua tional (regional a n d fem inist) contexts in w hich they w ere be ing negotiated. I dem onstra te how th e w o m e n 's collective and indiv idual identities are connected w ith th e evolving g ro u p s ' p rax is th ro u g h the use a n d in terpretation o f alternative organizational structures a n d process. The tensions inheren t in defin ing collective fem in ist identities cuad p rax is a re h ighlighted. This thesis is based on prim ary a n d secondary sou rces includ ing ind iv idual interview s and a focus g roup w ith tw e lv e w om en w ho p a rtic ip a ted in w om en 's health organizing d u rin g th is tim e fram e; a n d the historical reco rds an d docum ents of the four w om en 's g roups w ho m a d e up the w o m en 's h ea lth m ovem ent in northw estern O ntario hrom 1980 un til 1992. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T able o f Contents ii Abstract i Table o£ C ontents ii A cknow ledgm ents v Chapter O ne: Introduction 1.1 In troduction 1 1.2 A im of the thesis 2 1.3 The W om en 's H ealth M ovem ent 3 1.4 The W om en 's H ealth M ovem ent in N orthw estern O n tario 8 1.5 W hat is H ealth? 10 1.6 Focus of d ie Thesis 13 1.7 M ethodology 14 I. M ethods 18 1.8 Significance of the Research 26 1.9 P lan of th e thesis 28 Chapter Two: The H istory of W om en's H ealth O rganizing in N orthw estern O ntario 2.1 In troduction 31 2.2 The R egion of N orthw estern O n ta rio 32 2.3 The W om en 's M ovem ent in N o rth w este rn Ontario 37 2.4 The W om en 's H ealth M ovem ent in N orthw estern O n tario 39 2.5 The W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project (WHEP): 1982-1985 43 2.6 The W om en 's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (WHIN): 1985-1992 59 2.7 Sum m ary 79 Chapter Three: The P olitics o f W om en's H ealth O rganizing in N orthw estern O ntario 3.1 In troduction 82 3.2 Politics: Praxis vs. Identity 84 3.3 O rgan iz ing Efforts: S tructure a n d Process 86 I. W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee 89 II. W om en 's H ealth Action G ro u p (WHAG) 93 ni. W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project (WHEP) 96 IV. W om en 's H ealth In fo rm ation N etw ork (W HIN) 106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents cont. iii V. The W ork E nv ironm en t 109 VI. Funding Issues 110 3.4 U nderly ing Power: T ensions 116 3.5 Sum m ary 120 Chapter Four: W om en's Id en tity in N orthw estern Ontario: Fem inism and R egionality 4.1 In troduction 123 4.2 W om en H ealth Activists: The Participants 125 4.3 N otions of Identity 128 I. C o llective/Ind iv idual Identity Building: A Pragm atic M odel o f Discourse T heory 128 4.4 Regional Identity 131 I. G endered R egional Iden tity 139 4.5 Fem inist Identity 144 4.6 Sm nm ary 160 Chapter Five: C onclusion 5.1 C onclud ing C om m ents 162 5.2 D irections for Fu ture R esearch 167 A ppendixes A. Sem i-structured In terv iew G uide 170 B. C over Letter - In terv iew 173 C. C onsent Form - In terv iew 174 D. List of O pen-Ended In terv iew s Q uoted in th e Text 175 E. F ram ew ork for S em i-structured Focus G roup 177 F. C over Letter - Focus G ro u p 178 G. C onsent Form - Focus G ro u p 179 H. L ist o f Focus G roup P artic ipan ts 180 I. List o f W orkshops an d R esources Com piled b y W H EP and W H IN 181 J. D efinition of H ealth a n d Set o f Principles - W H IN 184 Figures A M ap of W HEP T arge t C om m unities 45 B E m ploym ent O p p o rtu n ities - The C hronicle Tournai 48 C E m ploym ent O p p o rtu n ities - The D ryden O bserver 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T able o f C ontents cont. iv Figures cont. D Final N u trition W o rkshop - T he Echo 53 E "E xplo ring Life C hanges" w orkshop d eals w ith m ythes about m enopause an d ag in g - T he Regional 53 F W om en m u st ge t in v o lv ed politically to b ring ab o u t changes in h ea lth field - The C hronicle Tournai 72 P rim ary Source R eferences 186 B ib lio g rap h y 188 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ck n o w led g m en ts v First a n d forem ost, I w ould like to th an k m y advisor. D r. P am W akewich fo r h e r steadfast su p p o r t th roughou t th e research ing , w riting a n d ed itin g of this thesis. The w ords of encouragem ent, th o u g h tfu l insights an d com m ents on drafts she endlessly p ro v id ed m e w ere invaluable. 1 th an k m y com m ittee m em bers Dr. Bruce M inore an d Dr. S h a ro n Dale-Stone fo r th e ir com m ents an d suggestions. 1 also w o u ld like to thank m y colleagues a t the C en tre fo r R ural and N o rth e rn Flealth Research (CRaNHR), L akehead University, M ary E llen H ill, Rachel A riss a n d G ary M ack for their su p p o rt a n d encouragem ent. 1 also th a n k m y m om an d d a d fo r th e ir unw av erin g love, support a n d encouragem ent th ro u g h o u t the process o f w ritin g this thesis. M y sister and brother, a lthough n o t liv in g in T hunder Bay w ere alw ays only a p h o n e call aw ay for inspiring w o rd s , laugh ter and tears a n d fo r th is 1 am grateful. 1 m u s t also thank m y friends, b o th in sid e a n d outside of th e p ro g ram for a lw ays m ak ing them selves available to m e fo r conversation w h ich a t tim es p rov ided in s ig h t an d questions w hich w ere u se fu l to shap ing th is thesis. 1 w o u ld like to express thanks fo r th e financial su p p o rt received a t various stages of th is thesis. I th an k The L akehead C entre for N o rth e rn S tudies, Lakehead U niversity for p ro v id in g m e w ith a trav e l g ra n t to a ttend th e C anad ian Research Institu te fo r th e A dvancem ent of W om en (CRIAW) conference in Sudbury to p resen t p re lim inary findings on the research . 1 thank the Sociology D epartm ent for p rov id ing m e w ith the Dr. Anita B etran C hen G raduate R esearch Scholarship. 1 thank the C hief L ibrarian, Anne D eigh ton , fo r the financial su p p o rt p rov ided th rough A Vast and Magnificent Land H isto rical Research G ran t. I also Üiank the W om en's S tud ies C ollaborative M asters P rogram for th e ir financial assistance th ro u g h m eans o f a n Entrance A w ard. Finally, 1 a m especially g ra te fu l fo r the uncond itional suppo rt a n d encouragem ent g iv en to m e by L arry H ogard . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRO DUCTIO N T he w om en 's h ea lth m ovem ent in C an ad a has been evolving since the 1970s. This social m ovem ent h as taken various shapes and form s over the past three decades (Tudiver 1994). C hanges have occurred in the focus and th ru s t of national w om en 's hea lth policy, characterized by a g ro w in g em phasis on lifestyle and health p ro m o tio n ' and grassroots organizing a ro u n d national and local w om en 's health needs. T he grassroots w o m en 's health m ovem en t has been in strum en ta l in p ro d u cin g change a t the ind iv idua l and the social levels in several key areas including; the developm ent of w om en 's health clinics; the fostering of research an d the d issem ination of inform ation an d know ledge specific to w om en 's health an d w om en 's bodies; and transfo rm ing the clinical rela tionship betw een physicians an d their fem ale clients (C larke 2000; Ruzek e t al. 1997). In particular, w om en health activists have em phasized the im portance o f a ttend ing to w om en 's physical, em otional, social, and psychological health as w ell draw ing atten tion to w om en 's roles as hea lth care p rov iders and educators in o u r society. These new policy directions were signalled by the 1974 Lalonde Report and Jake Epp's Report of 1986, "Achieving Health For All: A Framework for Health Promotion." Further, there were various health reports produced by Health and Welfare Canada, ie. "Issues and Priorities for Women's Health in Canada: A Key Informant Survey," (1981) which focussed specifically on women's health issues. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 In 1985, the W om en's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (W HIN) w as fo rm ed in no rthw este rn Ontario and a vo lun tary b oard of w om en in terested in reg ional w om en 's health issues w as established. O rganizing a ro u n d w om en 's health in this reg ion h a d beg u n five years earlier w ith the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee (1980-1983), the W om en's H ealth A ction G roup (WHAG) in 1983 and the W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project (WHEP), a th ree year dem onstra tion project (1982-1985) in itia ted by regional w om en and fu n d ed th ro u g h the H ealth P rom otion D irectorate, H ealth a n d W elfare C anada. The no rthw estern O ntario w o m en 's health m ovem ent f ro m 1980 -1992is one successful exam ple of grassroots w o m en 's health organizing. Local w om en educated an d p rov ided h ea lth inform ation to countless others in their com m unities a n d the su rround ing region. 1.2 AIM OF THE THESIS The p rim ary aim of this thesis is to docum ent the social h istory of w o m en 's efforts o rgan izing around health in no rthw estern O ntario f ro m 1980 -1992.1 d iscuss h o w a n d th ro u g h w hat m eans w om en 's h ea lth activism developed and su sta ined itself as a grassroots ne tw ork in no rthw estern O ntario . This includes a critical exam ination of the social, m edical and political env ironm ent of w om en 's h e a lth in the iso la ted com m unities of this region. 1 a rg u e tha t the reg ional w om en 's h e a lth o rgan izations W HIN, W HEP, W HAG a n d th e W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee w ere instrum ental in p rov id ing health educa tion and resources to regional w om en. 1 explore how the regional context sh ap ed th e processes a n d identities of the w o m en Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 w ho shaped these organizations. I exam ine the specific health issues th a t the w om en's h ea lth g roups add ressed o v e r the twelve y e a rs o f their m andate. Further, 1 analyse h o w these organizations struc tu red and o rg an ized them selves, looking specifically a t the em phasis o n consensus decision m aking. This focus on organization w ill illum inate h o w the regional w o m e n 's health g roups aligned them selves w ith the larger w o m e n 's health m o v em en t and the streng ths and tensions of reg ional fem inist iden tities. W hile there has been som e docum entation o f national w om en 's health organizing efforts to date (T udiver 1994; Dua e t al. 1994; Gottlieb 1994; Griffen C ohen 1993; D oucette 1991; S tone a n d Doucette 1988; A dam son, Briskin and McPhail 1988; M cD onnell 1986), th e re has been m inim al docum entation of w om en 's health o rgan izing efforts in th is h in te rlan d region d esp ite a significant hub of regional activity (Pitblado and P o n g 1996; Suschnigg 1996). This thesis w ill p resen t a social h istory of w om en 's health o rgan iz ing efforts in no rthw estern O ntario and m ake connections betw een the reg io n a l aspects of th e w o m en 's health o rganizing a n d that of th e w id e r C anadian w o m e n 's health m ovem ent. 1.3 THE W O M EN'S HEALTH M OVEMENT Evolving o u t o f the second-w ave fem inist m ovem en t, the w o m en 's health m ovem ent in N o rth America g a in e d m om entum in th e 1970s as w om en began organizing a ro u n d shared experiences of d issatisfaction w ith the existing structure a n d practices o f the form al m edical sy s tem (Clarke 2000; R uzek et al. 1997; L upton Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1994; M aleskey 1984; Sandelow ski 1981; R uzek1978; M ariesk ind 1975). In particular, w o m en w ere unhappy w ith conventional biom edical practices w hich unnecessarily m edicalized w om en 's rep ro d u c tiv e an d sexual lives (C larke 2000; Love 1994; C lem en t 1987; R uzek 1978). In itially , w om en m et in sm all, consciousness-raising g roups. There, they w ould sh are a n d discuss their o w n personal experiences o f the m edical system and the negative encounters m any h a d faced w ith their physicians. M ost often, the shared stories o f m edical experiences revo lved around w om en 's rep roductive health issues. Specifically, w om en w ere fru stra ted w ith the lack of choices available to them reg a rd in g access to b irth con tro l a n d abortion, a n d they w ere concerned w ith the lack of contro l they experienced in pregnancy and ch ildb irth (Pauly M organ 1998; D oyal 1994). G rassroots w om en 's health g roups w ere fo rm ed o u t of these consciousness-raising sessions and w om en began p ro v id in g inform ation an d a lterna tive services, lobbying governm ents for change, acting as advocates, and em p o w erin g them selves th ro u g h self-help practices an d h ea lth education . The w om en w ho becam e invo lved w ith w om en 's health organizing w ere m idd le an d w orking-class housew ives an d m others, s tuden ts , w orking w om en, nurses, m idw ives and w om en w o rk in g as service p rov iders in the form al health care system . These w om en iden tified w ith the politics of the second-w ave fem inist m ovem en t a n d sought to e lim inate th e m ale dom inance of physicians a n d the m edical system w hich largely defined and contro lled w om en 's sexual and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 reproductive lives (C larke 2000; Love 1994; R uzek 1978). F rom the beginning, the w o m en 's health m ovem ent focussed on sh ifting ideas ab o u t w o m en 's bodies and h ea lth from th e traditional discourses a n d hierarchal s tru c tu re of bio-m edicine to w om en a n d wom en-centred definitions. This focus w as a re su lt o f the consciousness-raising experiences of w om en, and the collective rea liza tion th a t pow er re la tions w ere unequal in society. In the f irs t published e d itio n of O ur Bodies Ourselves (1971), the Boston W om en's H ealth Book Collective s ta ted , ...pow er is unequally d is trib u ted in o u r society; m en, h av in g the pow er, a re considered superio r and we; h av ing less pow er a re considered inferior. W hat w e have to change are the p o w er relationsh ips betw een the sexes, so th a t each sex h as equal pow er an d people's qualities can be ju d g ed o n the ir m erits rather than in term s of pow er (7). By su p p o rtin g a n d provid ing w o m en w ith h ea lth inform ation and the r ig h t to choices, fem in ists w ork ing as w o m en 's health activists in the U nited States a n d C anada o rgan ized a n d developed w o m en 's health clinics^ and collectives^ to in form The first wom en's health clinics were established in California. Known as the Feminist Women's Health Centres, Üiese centres offered participatory gynaecology clinics where women could come together and learn about their vaginas and cervixes under the supervision of a skilled health worker. This learning involved identifying anatomy, learning about physiology, detection of infections, checking lUD placements, pregnancy testing and nutrition counselling (Sandelowski 1981). 3 Working out of Boston in 1971, the Boston W omen's Health Book Collective published the first edition of Our Bodies Ourselves. These women were seen as radical and revolutionary as they "encouraged wom en to take a pro-active role in their own hezdth care, to be their ow n advocates and to speak up and question the medical profession" Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 an d em pow er w o m en of the ir choices a n d to educate w o m en abou t their bodies a n d th e ir health. W om en h e a lth activists often b eg an their o rg an iz in g efforts around issues w hich w ere d irectly re lev an t to their o w n life histories. C en tra l concerns w ere b ir th contro l options, access to legal abortion, the harm fu l effects of diethylstilbestrol (D ES)\ ch ildbirth op tions, lesbian health issues, o ver-p rescrip tion of psychotropic d rugs including tranquillizers, barbiturates, and sedatives, a n d changing the clinical relationship b e tw een docto rs and w om en. W om en's h e a lth collectives, includ ing w om en 's h e a lth clinics and w o m en 's consciousness-raising g ro u p s began to sp rin g u p across C anada early on in the 1970s (Tudiver 1994). Som e of the earliest w om en 's hea lth collectives and clinics in C anada w ere estab lished in V ancouver, M ontreal, N o v a Scotia, Toronto a n d W innipeg (Tudiver 1994). M any of these w om en in itia ted health collectives w ere based o n the n o tio n o f se lf help, the sh arin g of ed uca tiona l resources a n d the p rovision of a lternative h ea lth care services. These a lternative health care p rovisions and services stood in s ta rk contrast to con tem porary C a n ad ian medical practices roo ted firm ly in bio-m edicine. A p am p h le t p u t o u t by T he V ancouver W om en 's (Vann 1998). Since that time there have been numerous reprintings and several revised editions of this text including several special editions which focus on aging, pregnancy and young women. 4 Diediylstilbestrol w as a synthetic hormone given to women from 1941 imtU 1971 to prevent miscarriages. It has since been discovered that the children of women who took this hormone have extremely high cases of cervical and ovarian cancer. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 H ea lth Collective in 1976 sta ted , "W e are o p p o sed to the trad itional health care m o d e l w h ere one person is the expert a n d the o th er receives advice o r treatm ent w ith n o opportun ity fo r d iscussion o r decision a ro u n d alternatives." A long w ith the m a n y u rb an w om en 's h e a lth collectives fo rm ed in the 1970s, a va rie ty of sm aller w o m e n 's health g roups b eg an to appear across C anada. Some of these w ere su p p o rt g ro u p s fo r w om en liv ing w ith specific conditions or in sim ilar situations, som e w ere m o re loosely defined seeing them selves p rim arily as sharing in fo rm ation and know ledge on health a n d re la ted issues and som e of the groups w ere directly involved as service providers, o r political activists (C lem ent1987). Yet, all w e re p a rt of the la rg e r w o m en 's health m o v em en t in C anada a n d as C lem ent (1987) com m ents, they all "sh a red a com m on v ision of w ha t health cou ld be, and a com m on dissatisfaction w ith the existing h e a lth care system " (6). W om en w ere o rgan iz ing an d p rov id ing h e a lth inform ation n o t only th rough g rassroo ts w om en 's g ro u p s an d w om en 's h e a lth clinics a t the local level b u t also th ro u g h national p rin t m edia. In C anada, th e H ealthsharing Collective, w orking o u t o f Toronto, O ntario p ro d u ce d and d is tr ib u te d a C anadian w o m en 's health jou rnal, Healthsharing: A Canadian Women's Health Quarterly from 1979 th ro u g h to F eb ruary of 1994. This collective w as com m itted to bringing w om en 's health issues to th e fo refron t an d p resen ted fem inist perspectives on issues fro m b o th m edical a n d a lternative m odels o f h ea lth (D ua e ta l. 1994). Healthsharing connected w om en 's h ea lth g roups by p ro v id in g a national fo ru m w here w om en fro m across the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 country cou ld voice and discuss h ea lth issues an d concerns (Tudiver 1994). The w om en 's health m ovem ent, as p a rt of the larger w om en's m ovem en t has alw ays w o rk ed to p u sh the boundziries of trad itional social though t an d practice and for th is reason, has been subject to criticism (Griffen Cohen 1993). W ith in w om en 's h ea lth organizing efforts w om en have a ttem p ted to challenge n o t only w om en 's place w ith in bio-m edical though t b u t the traditional structu res a n d processes involved w ith ru n n in g organizations. Successfully and w ith challenges, w om en 's h ea lth groups have u se d non-hierarchal structures and consensus for decision m ak ing (Ristock 1991). A lthough no t w ithou t tensions, these organizational d istinctions have led w om en 's h ea lth groups to prov ide health in form ation a n d em pow er w om en in w ays w h ich reach beyond the boundaries and scope of conventional m edical m odels. 1.4 T H E W O M EN 'S H EA LTH M OVEM ENT IN N O RTH W ESTER N O N T A R IO A t th e sam e time as w o m en w ere organizing nationally, w o m en in n o rthw estern O ntario w ere in the process of developing a regional group o f w o m en health activists. N orthw estern O n tario w om en w ere push ing the confines of traditional m edicine and m edical practice th ro u g h their organizing efforts. Beginning in 1980 w ith the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee, an off-shoot o f the N orthw estern O ntario In ternational W om en's Decade Council, w om en expressed concerns ab o u t the lack of health inform ation and services available to w o m en living in th e relatively isolated com m unities of no rthw estern O ntario (C hum w ay Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 1981). W hen activists in the reg iona l w om en 's m ovem ent becam e aw are of fu n d s available to initiate a project o n w o m en 's health a voluntary Board, the W om en 's H ealth A ction G roup (W HAG) w as fo rm ed to support the W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project (WHEP), a th ree year dem onstra tion project a im ed a t p rov id ing health in fo rm ation to w om en liv ing in the reg ion of no rthw estern O ntario (K arlstedt 1987). Initially, these g ro u p s de te rm ined the health needs a n d concerns of regional w om en th rough a su rv ey conducted du ring the fall o f 1982 and th e spring of 1983 (W HEP Final R eport 1986). Issues identified by the su rvey responden ts included stress, isolation, lack of inform ation, lack of services and th e health im pact of the env ironm ent. T he W HEP project's goal w as to p rov ide consum ers w ith the specific h e a lth in fo rm ation asked for in th e survey th ro u g h a num ber o f w orkshops an d conferences he ld in the regional com m unities a n d T hunder Bay. U pon com pletion of the generously funded th ree year project, th e w om en invo lved w ished to con tinue o rgan iz ing a n d providing health in form ation to regional w om en. Thus, in 1985 the W om en 's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (WHIN) w as form ed w ith a v o lu n ta ry w o rk in g Board com m itted to carry ing o u t the tasks of p ro v id in g w om en 's h e a lth in fo rm ation to regional w om en as in itia ted by WHEP. W H IN w as a non-profit o rg an iza tio n com m itted to prov id ing resources an d inform ation to w om en across th e region. W H lN 's philosophy w as to , "p rom ote a n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 aw areness of health issues; respect the realities o f w om en 's lives in N orthw estern O ntario; and encourage a n d support w om en to take responsib ility for their o w n health" (W HIN P a m p h le t1986). Over a p e rio d o f seven years, th is reg ional netw ork organ ized and p ro d u ce d w om en 's h ea lth resource kits, activ ities, w orkshops, conferences, the n ew sle tte r Health Netiuork Nezos, th e theatrical p roduction of the p lay C rane Dance, a n d in collaboration w ith th e Red Lake W om en 's G roup the publication of the book . Long Distance Delivery: A Guide to Travelling Away From Home to Give Birth (1990). T he m em bership o f W H IN fluctuated extensively yet this w om en 's health n e tw o rk reached hu n d red s o f w om en th ro u g h th e ir organizing efforts in the m any com m unities they serviced. I n 1992, W H IN d isso lved for several reasons despite o n g o in g com m itm ent to w o m en 's health. O ver the e leven years th a t w om en o rgan ized a ro u n d w o m en 's health in northw estern O n tario reg ional w om en's lives w ere changed. W h eth er in the form of acquiring health in fo rm ation previously unknow n, recogn iz ing the choices available to w om en th ro u g h the w ork o f w o m en 's efforts, ga in ing skills and know ledge that w e re transferable to o th e r areas of th e ir lives o r sim ply acknow ledging th a t w o m en have specific h e a lth needs and v iew h ea lth differently from bio-medicine, reg iona l w om en w ere affirm ed th rough th e ir o rgan iz ing efforts. 1.5 W H A T IS H EA LTH ? Fem inist defin itions o f health speak in term s of physical, m ental, spiritual an d social w ell-being so th a t political, social, econom ic a n d environm ental Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 conditions are seen as h ea lth issues (Dua et al. 1994; M cDonnell 1986). This holistic defin ition of health w hich w a s ad o p ted by the w o m e ri s health m ovem ent shifts the focus from disease and tre a tm e n t of acute illnesses to prevention a n d education. F u rther, it factors in the social influences affecting health ra ther than m ain tain ing a strictly biological basis fo r de te rm in ing health. W om en health activists recognize th a t there are num erous fac to rs influencing the h ea lth of w om en such as econom ic sta tus, liv ing conditions, race, educational level, a n d sexuality. A central goal of the w om en 's health m ovem ent has been to ed u ca te w om en tha t biological understand ings of illness d o n o t fully encapsulate the m eanings of health . S tudies have show n th a t w om en are the p rim ary consum ers of health care services® an d they are often considered family 'h e a lth guard ians' (M cDonnell 1986). Because h ea lth is a central fea tu re of w om en's lives, fem inist health researchers and activists have invested considerab le tim e in c ritiqu ing an d understand ing how trad itional understand ings o f h ea lth have w orked to contro l an d influence w om en 's definitions of health and th e ir experience w ith th e h ea lth care system. T hrough com prehensive analyses of trad itio n a l medical practices an d the dom inan t m edical system , w om en health activ ists an d feminists h av e critiqued the unnecessary For further discussion of w om en's high use of health services see Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control, New York: Prager Publishers, 1979:13. Also, Pitblado and Pong's article "W omen's Health In Northwestern Ontario: An Introductory Geographical Appraisal" in Changing Lives: Women in Northwestern Ontario. Edited by Margaret Kechnie and Marge Reitsma-Street, Toronto: Dundem Press, 1996 : 239-250. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 m edicalization of w om en lives a n d w om en's bod ies w ith in bio-medicine (Pauly M organ 1998; L up ton 1997; F ind lay and Miller 1994; D oyal 1979). Bio-medicine, specifically the bio-medical m odel h as existed as a do m in an t theoretical perspective in m edicine, cu lture and the econom y. This m odel a ttem p ts an d claim s to explain disease Ü irough four assum ptions. M ishler (1981) explains h o w these assum ptions function to m aintain hegem onic m edical discourse o n health an d illness. The bio-medical m odel is based on the prem ises that; 1. Disease can be defined as being a dev ia tion from norm al biological functioning. 2. Disease can be accounted for in te rm s of a specific etiology (the cause of th e disease can be fo u n d w ithin the body). 3. Disease is m an ifested the sam e w ay in all hum ans (gender and cross-cultural differences a re ignored). 4. Scientific m edicine is neutral. This m o d e l provides both the m edical profession a n d the lay population w ith the d o m in a n t d iscourse o n health a n d illness. By asserting th a t disease and illness are p rim arily biological in nature as understood th ro u g h elite scientific discourses, con tro l of health is effectively tak en ou t of the lay rea lm of understand ing . Furtherm ore , the m odel and its practices unnecessarily m edicalize experiences a n d conditions. M edicalization refers to th e process w hereby a n object or life experience becom es defined th rough dom inan t societal discourses as an illness and th e focus shifts in to the sphere of bio-m edicine an d under the p o w e r of the medical p rofession (F indlay a n d M iller 1994). By m edicalizing experiences a n d conditions physicians Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 are able to exercise and increase th e ir con tro l over w om en 's no rm ative life cycle in areas w h ich prev iously w o u ld n o t have b een v iew ed as m edical. Som e exam ples of m edicalization w hich have g rea tly im pacted o n w om en 's lives are th e labelling of p re-m enstrual syndrom e (PMS), ch ildb irth ing , a n d m enopause (D oyal 1979). As aspects o f everyday life are increasing ly b ro u g h t u n d e r the scru tiny of m edicine, critics co n ten d th a t w e have th e m ed ica liza tion of everyday life ' (Doyal 1979; L upton 1994). W om en and w o m e n 's bod ies in particu lar, because of th e ir frequent contact w ith physicians a n d the m edical system are a con tinual site for m edicalization. 1.6 FOCUS OF THE THESIS The focus of this thesis is to d o cu m en t a detailed case s tu d y of w om en's health o rg an iz in g efforts in n o rth w es te rn O ntario . This social h is to ry will be exam ined w ith in the context of the w o m e n 's h ea lth m ovem ent. I exp lo re how the region affected bo th the o rgan iz ing efforts o f th e w om en involved, a n d contributed to the experiences of bu ild ing a collective fem in ist iden tity for the w om en. Further, I explore th e streng ths and tensions uncovered in th is particular h isto ry of w om en's health o rgan iz ing . Specifically, I look to the politics of o rg an iz in g a n d group decision-m aking th rough consensus, w h a t h ea lth issues w ere defined as w om en's health issues, a n d how the g ro u p s a lig n ed them selves w ith the la rg er w om en's health m o v em en t in Canada. The o rgan iz ing efforts of the w om en living in no rthw estern O ntario are one exam ple of h o w the w om en's h ea lth m ovem ent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 developed w ith in a certa in tim e fram e, in a specific reg ion , w ith distinctive regional h e a lth issues w hile a t th e sam e tim e con tribu ting to th e larger efforts of the w om en 's h e a lth m ovem ent. 1 .7 M ETHODOLOGY M ethodology is itself a theory. I t is a theory of m ethods w hich in fo rm s a range of issues fro m w h o to study, how to study, w h ic h institu tional p rac tices to a d o p t (such as in terp reta tive practices), how to w rite a n d which know ledge to u se (Skeggs 1997; 17). This thesis is g u id e d by, an d fram ed w ith in cu rren t discussions o f fem inist th eo ry , epistem ology, m ethodo logy and m ethods. Because the theoretical and m ethodological positions a re overlapping, m utually-influencing and inform ing each o th e r th ro u g h o u t all stages of the research process i t is necessary to briefly exam ine a n d outline each in re la tion to one another (S tanley an d W ise 1990). Fem inist theorizing relies on w om en 's experiences and m aterial rea lities to in fo rm the conceptual fram ew o rk from w h ich to b u ild theory. This d iffers ffom o th e r trad itiona l d isciplines w hereby experience a n d subjectivity are th o u g h t to u n d e rm in e theorizing a n d the research process. A lth o u g h there are m an y cu rren t academ ic debates su rro u n d in g the fragility of subjective positioning in th e research p rocess, fem in ist research acknow ledges a n d relies o n researcher/ p a rtic ip an t subjectiv ity to u n ders tand h o w the process of in te rp re tin g events and experiences con tribu tes to the developm en t of know ledge(s). Fem inist research seeks to create know Iedge(s) about w o m en a n d w om en 's liv es as in terpreted th ro u g h the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 exam ination and telling of w o m en 's experiences. A nalyses of pow er a re central to fem inist theory , m ethodology and epistem ology. Epistem ology theorizes know ledge a n d pow er and problem atizes the no tio n of w ho can be a 'k n o w er', w h a t gets to b e k now n and why? F urther, fem in ist epistem ology exam ines previously established know ledge and asks w hy certa in k inds of know ledge have been validated (Stanley and Wise: 26). This a tten tio n to "the social re la tions of research and know ledge production" is w h a t sets fem in ist research ap art fro m o ther disciplines (Ironstone-C atterall e t al. 1998). U ltim ately, m ethodology is b o th theory an d epistem ology o r "a perspective, or a ve ry b ro ad theoretically in fo rm ed fram ew ork" (Stanley and Wise: 26). M ethods are the techn iques or practices, such as in terview s and focus g ro u p s w h ich can be used to carry o u t th e m ethodology. Recent critiques of know ledge and epistem ology contend th a t social scientists need to be hyper-vigilant to the subjective position they, as researchers occupy w hile conducting research and crea ting know ledge (Stanley a n d W ise 1990; H a rd in g 1986). Therefore, an im p o rtan t p a r t of this research process has been situating m yself w ithin the research context. M y interest in the topic of w om en's o rgan iz ing around h ea lth in n o rth w este rn O ntario evolved for several reasons. F irst, because I was b o m and ra ised in T hunder Bay an d th en sp en t the better p o rtio n of a decade liv ing aw ay only to re tu rn again, I becam e keenly aw are of the lack o f w om en 's health services Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 in the area. T hough m y involvem ent w ith local w om en, I becam e aw are of a g ro u p of w om en w ho h a d o rganized in the reg ion a ro u n d w o m e n 's health issues in the recent past. The W H IN w om en h ad accom plished a g re a t deal in the a rea of w om en 's h ealth an d undertak ing a social h istory of their activ ities is im portan t as local w om en 's h isto ry is for the m ost p a rt un to ld . F u rthe r, because of m y o w n involvem ent w ith w om en 's organizing and w om en 's organizations 1 was in terested in uncovering the specifics o f how a n d w hy these w om en organized. Finally, the b road ran g e of w om en 's health issues affecting n o t only m yself, bu t m y m other, sister, aun ts , friends a n d co-w orkers is im p o rtan t and u n d e rs tan d in g the h isto ry of how w om en in no rthw estern O ntario have talked about, a n d understood w om en 's health issues contributes to this understand ing . For th ese reasons, 1 w as a n d continue to be invested in understand ing how w o m e n 's health issues are understood in the region. A no ther piece of the m ethodology gu id ing this research process has been a n attentiveness to w h a t fem inist researchers te rm "reflexivity" ( Ironstone-C atterall e t al. 1998). As p a rt of the epistem ological questioning w ith in th e research process it is critical th a t researchers a ttend to their o w n subjective reflexivity. This process refers to the a tten tion w hich the fem inist researcher m u st focus on her ow n social location, includ ing the privileges an d biases w hich m ay influence the research process. B eing reflexive th roughou t the research process includ ing asking m yself w hy this particu lar research project w as undertaken , h o w m y participants w ere Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 chosen, h o w I collected m y data , w hy certa in them es seem ed m ore critical than o thers in w riting the final thesis and reflecting on, a nd ask ing the partic ipan ts how the thesis should be m ad e available to th e w id e r w om en 's com m un ity upon com pletion. O ne final reflection o n m y m ethodology concerns h o w the re sea rch evolved as the process and in fo rm ation available rev ea led itself. A t the b eg in n in g of this project, m y in tent w as to docum en t the efforts o f the W om en 's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (WHIN) firom the tim e period of 1985 th ro u g h to 1992. H o w ev er, as I collected m y interview a n d focus group d a ta i t becam e a p p aren t th a t th e history I w as being told d a te d back fu rther than th e efforts of W HIN. I w as hearing recollections of the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee (1980-1983), th e W om en's H ealth A ction G roup (W HAG) from 1983 u n til 1985 a n d the W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project (W HEP) w h ich took p lace from 1982 un til 1985. Further, in exam in ing the W HIN docum en ts I uncovered repo rts, m inutes and reco rd s dating back to 1980 which in c lu d ed th e activities o f all th e above m en tioned groups. It becam e evident to m e th a t in recording a social h isto ry of W H IN I cou ld no t separa te o u t the h istory of W H IN from the h isto ries of the W om en a n d H ea lth Sub­ com m ittee, W HAG, a n d W HEP. In order to h av e a clear p ictu re of h o w W H IN had evolved , w ho had been invo lved an d w h a t h e a lth issues w ere facing ffie W H IN o rgan ization I had to u n d e rs tan d chronologically h o w the w o m e n 's health o rgan iz ing had un rave lled in northw estern O ntario . For this reason, the project Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 un fo lded itself as a m o re com plete h isto ry of w om en 's hea lth o rganizing efforts in no rthw estern O ntario . I. M ethods I have used th re e m ethods in th is pro ject an d the research is based on bo th p rim ary and secondary sources. Prim arj’̂ sources include th irteen sem i-structured in terv iew s using o p en -en d ed questions w ith tw elve o f th e w om en who w ere actively involved w ith w om en 's health organizing in no rthw estern O ntario betw een the years of 1980 -1992, as w ell as a sem i-structured focus g ro u p attended by five of th e w om en. Two of th e w o m en interview ed chose to be in te rv iew ed together over a period of three one a n d a ha lf hour long interview s. These tw o w om en informed m e a t the first in te rv iew th a t they p referred be ing in terv iew ed together because the ir m em ories cou ld be 'jogged ' by one ano ther in the te lling an d rem em bering of the ir collective invo lvem en t and I also sensed th ey enjoyed sharing the memories together. In using th e tw o m ethods of in terv iew ing and a focus g roup and through th e open-ended qu estio n s in both these m ethods I have b een able to "m axim ize d iscovery and descrip tion" (Reinharz 1992). T he focus g ro u p w as held upon com pletion of the in te rv iew s w ith five of th e w om en w h o participated in the interview s. The in te rv iew s took place in O ctober and N ovem ber of 1999. The focus g ro u p w as held o n D ecem ber 15,1999^. P rio r to undertak ing th e interview s and focus g ro u p , I w as g ran ted ethical approval on m y resea rch instrum ents [See A ppend ix A a n d E], cover letters [See Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 Prim ary source data w as analyzed th rough a docum entary analysis of the W om en and H e a lth Sub-com m ittee, W HAG, W HEP and W H IN files and resource kits [See A ppend ix I] available w h ich included 19 banker boxes of historical records an d inform ation. The docum entary analysis w as an ongoing process from Septem ber 1999 to February 2001. In conducting the docum entary analysis I im m ersed m yself in read ing an d m ak ing notes on the in fo rm ation found in the boxes. The records w ere laden w ith historical inform ation th ro u g h w hich I w as able to piece toge ther a historical look a t w om en 's organizing efforts a round health in northw estern O ntario . By using th e m ultip le m ethods of ind iv idual interview ing, a focus g roup a n d docum entary analysis, I have ob tained a m ore 'm ulti-faceted inform ation ' w h ich has prov ided g rea ter historical detail a n d a m ore collective sense of the orgzm ization and processes of the W om en an d H ealth S ubcom m ittee , W HAG, W HEP a n d W HIN. This thoroughness m ay have b een m issed if 1 had only used one of these m ethods. The partic ipan ts , some of w h o m h ad been W HAG o r W HEP and W H IN m em bers, w ere iden tified th rough w ord-of-m outh, beg inn ing w ith the tw o original W H IN m em bers w h o w ere in terv iew ed together. As well, I w as in troduced to th ree m em bers of W H EP an d W HIN a t the N orthw estern O n tario W om en's Decade Council Conference, "W om en of Y esterday, Today & T om orrow " held in T hunder A ppendix B a n d F], an d consent form s [See A ppendix C a n d G] firom the Lakehead U niversity Ethics A dvisory C om m ittee on A pril 7,1999. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 Bay o n O ctober 1-3, 1999. Initially, one of the w o m e n in troduced to m e a t the conference w as hesitan t to ag ree to a n interview. She to ld m e th a t there w as conflict w ith in W H EP an d W H IN a n d she felt uncom fortable because the tensions had nev er been resolved. I en cou raged h e r by telling h e r th a t all of the w om en's voices n eed ed to be h eard in th e te lling of th is social h isto ry a n d th a t I hoped she w o u ld partic ipa te because I fe lt th a t there w as definitely ro o m fo r differences of op in ion in the research project. I w a s encouraged w hen she p h o n e d the nex t day and ag reed to d o th e interview . T elephone nu m b ers a n d addresses w ere collected by myself a n d the partic ipan ts w ho knew o f the research. The m ajority of the w om en were initially con tacted by telephone. In som e cases, after the initial contact, I w ould m ail o u t a letter o f in troduction [See A p pend ix B] and in o thers, a n in terv iew w ould be se t u p over th e phone a nd I w o u ld b rin g th e letter of in tro d u c tio n an d the consent fo rm [See A ppend ix C] to the in terv iew . M ost w om en inuned ia te ly expressed in te rest in the pro ject an d w ere en thusiastic th a t a social-h istory of W HIN w as being undertaken . This m ade th e process of organizing a n d a rran g in g the in terv iew s enjoyable an d fairly easy. W ith alm ost all of th e in terv iew s, th roughou t th e process, each p artic ipan t w o u ld give m e nam es, te lephone num bers, addresses, e-m ail addresses of o th er w om en w ho w ere invo lved w ith W H IN and w ho they th o u g h t m igh t be in terested to be in terv iew ed. O ften, w h e n I w o u ld m ake the in itial call, the w om an partic ipan t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 w ould be an tic ipa ting m y call a n d w as m ore th an h a p p y to se t up an interview . After th ir tee n interview s I felt th a t I h a d m ore th an en o u g h inform ation collected for a project o f th is m agnitude. A t the p o in t of initial contact, th e purpose of the s tu d y w ou ld be explained, I w ou ld ask ab o u t tape-recording the interview , resp o n d en ts questions w ere answ ered a n d a tim e and place w o u ld be se t u p fo r th e interview . Before the in terview w o u ld begin, w e w o u ld go over the consen t fo rm a n d the s tudy w ou ld be exp la ined again in m ore de ta il. It w as m ade explicit th a t the w om en 's participation in th e study w as v o lu n ta ry an d they cou ld resign a t any point. I t w as explained to th e w om en tha t they co u ld refuse to an sw er any question an d if they w anted to sh u t off the tape reco rder they could a t an y tim e. M oreover, it w as explained th a t all of the in fo rm ation p rov ided in the in terv iew w ould rem ain confidential^. I also asked all of th e w om en a t the e n d of each interview if they w ould m in d m e calling them back to clarify any of the in fo rm ation provided in the interview . In m an y cases the w o m en them selves w o u ld call m e back to clarify or add in fo rm ation th a t they had fo rg o tten a t the tim e of the interview . T hirteen interviews w ere conducted w ith w o m e n from T hunder Bay, Schreiber, N ipigon, Red Lake, K enora a n d K eew atin in o rd er to cap ture the experiences of w om en from the broader reg ion . A nonym ity w as offered to the p artic ipan ts how ever, on ly one w om an chose to rem ain anonym ous. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 The sem i-structured in terv iew gu ide [See appendix A] consisted o f thirty - e ig h t questions of w h ich the first six questions focussed on dem ographics. These questions included age of first involvem ent w ith WHIN, education level, occupation a n d questions concerning ch ild ren a n d partners. The m ain body of the interview g u id e consisted of questions concerning the structure and process of W H IN ; W HIN activities; how and w h y the resource k its w ere pu t together and d istribu ted ; effects o f fund ing sources; personal invo lvem ent w ith WHIN; and perceived effects of W H IN on the region. The interview s lasted betw een one and one half and tw o h o u rs w ith a few exceptions. The first exception w as w ith the tw o original participants w h o chose to d o th e interview together. These w om en decided th a t there w o u ld be three in terv iew s over a period of three w eeks. This w orked extrem ely w ell as they were able to confer w ith one ano ther d u rin g the interview an d resp o n d w ith shared recollections of W H IN a n d their ow n involvem ent. O ne in teresting feature of m any of the interviews w as how the w o m en chose to rem em ber their involvem ent w ith W H IN . In m any instances, w o m en w ould recall their involvem ent w ith W H IN by rem em bering the b irth of th e ir ch ildren or o th er w om en 's child b irth experiences or u se the ages of their ch ild ren as specific p o in ts of reference. This is an in teresting dynam ic as it show s how w o m en 's lives are layered w ith roles an d experiences w hich overlap and inform w o m en 's w ays of know ing. M oreover, the w om en w o u ld often speak of how their c h ild ren w ere a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 central p a rt of W H IN in tha t W H IN p rom oted child-friendly spaces a n d a t m ost every W HIN function , children w ere present. Some of th e participants w o u ld lau g h a n d say th a t th ey w ere sure th a t the ir ch ild ren w o u ld k n o w how to o rgan ize and w rite funding p roposals th rough osm osis by the tim e they w ere adults. All of the in terview s w ere tap e recorded and transcribed in full. T his enabled m e to read over the transcripts several tim es looking fo r com m on them es, tensions a n d shared recollections. Some o f th e com m on them es th a t came th ro u g h in the interview s w ere structu re and process issues, iden tity including reg iona l and fem inist identities, issues a round fund ing , w ha t the h ea lth issues w ere th a t w ere focussed on, em pow erm ent of w o m en th rough p o p u la r education, resistance to m edicalization, issues a round the lack of technology (com puters, in te rnet, an d e- m ail), tensions a n d conflict w ith in th e organizations, a n d reflection o n the successes of the w om en's efforts. M any of these them es repeated them selves in th e focus group. A ll of the w om en w ho h a d partic ipated in the interview s w ere inv ited to a tten d th e focus g ro u p held on D ecem ber 15,1999 how ever, only five w om en participated . U pon com pletion of th e interview s, I in fo rm ed the w om en of th e upcom ing focus g roup . A letter [See ap p en d ix F] w as m ailed o u t to each of the tw elve w om en approxim ately th ree w eeks prior to th e d a te of the focus group. As w as exp la ined to m e by the w o m en calling to confirm their participa tion in the focus g ro u p the tim e of year m ade it difficult fo r m an y of the w o m en to a ttend because of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 unpredictable w eath e r a n d the resu lting ro ad conditions. T he focus group took p lace in a neu tra l location in T h under Bay. O n the evening of th e focus group, the research w as exp la ined once again a n d the consen t form [See A ppend ix G] w as rev iew ed and signed by the pa rtic ipan ts . The fram ew ork fo r the focus group evolved from the ind iv idua l in terv iew s an d consisted of th ree general thematic questions [See A ppend ix E]. The focus g ro u p in terview w as tape-recorded and deta iled notes w ere transcribed u p o n com pletion. The focus g ro u p w as im p o rtan t as i t enabled the w om en to s it together and recall a collective m em ory of w o m en 's efforts organizing a ro u n d health in the region. It w as the f irs t tim e th a t som e of th e w om en had been ab le to m eet, discuss a n d resolve som e of th e tensions w h ich h a d occurred w hen th ey w ere organizing. A ll of the w om en expressed g ra titude fo r the un ique opp o rtu n ity i t p rovided. The focus g ro u p also perm itted a discussion of the thesis research process includ ing suggestions of w here to ho u se the docum ents u p o n com pletion of the research and how th e social history sh o u ld be d istribu ted to the pa rtic ipan ts and the w id e r w om en's com m unity . A fter a sh o rt discussion, it w as dec ided that the docum ents w ou ld go the T hunder Bay H istorical M useum A rch ives a long w ith a copy of the thesis to p ro v id e a con tex t fo r the records. Further, I ag reed to produce a n d distribute a book let docum en ting th e h isto ry of the w om en 's h ea lth organizing efforts upon com pletion of the academ ic po rtio n of the research. In p a rt, this is m y w ay of giving a p a r t o f the research back to the participants a n d th e com m unity. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 This research w ou ld have been im possible to conduct w ith o u t them freely giving of the docum en ts and their tim e in the form of in terv iew s an d the focus g roup . T he docum entary analysis w as a long and ted io u s process bu t p ro v id ed a picture th ro u g h w hich I w as able to in te rp re t the h isto ry of W HIN and a h isto ry of w om en's h e a lth organizing efforts f ro m 1980 th ro u g h to 1992. There w ere 18 banker boxes a n d 18 resource kits. T he boxes w ere g iven to m e by two of the original m em bers o f W H IN . The boxes h a d been previously s to re d a t these w om en 's hom es. For the m o st p a rt, the boxes w e re neatly organized a n d th e m ajority of the files w ere labelled a n d colour coded w h ich assisted the analysis. The process of conducting the docum entary analysis consisted of first go ing th rough each of the files and c rea ting a card catzilogue system w hich lis ted the contents of each of the files. By u s in g index cards a n d a n index card filing box I w as able to co lour code the index card s to represent each of the eighteen file boxes. All o f th e files w ere rev iew ed an d notes w ere m ad e as the filing system w as constructed. C erta in files w ere h igh ligh ted as I believed th a t particular inform ation uncovered m ig h t be m ore usefu l fo r constructing the social history. Some exam ples of the in fo rm ation found in the files included: w om en 's health reports an d studies done by o th er C anadian w o m en 's groups. H ealth C anada, or researchers; m em bership lists; reports o n each of the w orkshops d o n e in the region includ ing num bers of w om en w ho a ttended ; correspondence files; m eeting m inutes; files on various topics o f w om en 's h ea lth inform ation; a copy o f the eighteen w orkshops; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 copies of the new sletter Health Netivork Nezvs; annual reports; a n d num erous o ther files contain ing sim ilar in form ation fo r the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com mittee, W HAG an d W HEP. By organ iz ing the docum ents in a n index file card system I was able to re­ v isit the docum ents o n num erous occasions sim ply by looking u p on the index cards the specific in form ation 1 needed a n d th en going directly to the box, to the specific file and pu lling o u t the inform ation. In th is way, the docum en tary analysis w as ongoing th roughou t the entire research process as 1 re tu rn ed to the boxes repeated ly th roughou t th e w ritin g stages of tiie thesis. O n the w hole, all of the partic ipan ts w ere en th u sed th a t the history of w om en 's efforts organizing a ro u n d health w as being docum ented . As m any of the w om en explained to m e, a great deal of effort, time and energy h a d gone in to these organizations a n d to have tha t h isto ry reco rded w as an im p o rtan t step to bring ing som e closure to th a t period of th e ir lives. Further, som e of th e w om en explained th a t the research project affirm ed th e w o rk th a t they h ad invested so m uch of their tim e and personal sp irit in. F o r these reasons, I have fe lt a keen sense of responsibility in cap tu ring as fu lly as possible the history of these efforts. Yet I am also attentive to the fact tha t the social h isto ry found in these pages reflects m y ow n in terpretation o f the docum ents a n d in te rv iew /focus g ro u p data . I t is, as w ith all research, a p artia l account. 1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 This thesis docum en ts and analyses w om en 's health organizing in n o rth w este rn O ntario. T his is im portan t because it h ighlights th e value of w om en 's partic ipa tion a t a g rassroo ts level in the w o m en 's health m ovem ent. Critical insigh t in to the C anad ian w o m en 's h ea lth m ovem ent is b o th useful a n d necessary in o rd er to u n d e rs tan d how w o m e n 's roles in health a n d health re la ted activities have evo lved over the last tw o decades and to u n d e rs tan d a n d be critical of how an d th ro u g h w h a t m eans w o m e n have w orked to g a in autonom y over their bodies an d th e ir health . This research docum ents an d p rov ides a critical analysis of w om en 's h is to ry and w om en 's o rg an iz in g around h ea lth in no rthw estern O ntario . T hrough this reg iona l case study of the W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee, W H A G , W HEP and W H IN , I am able to exam ine how w om en in no rthw estern O n ta rio contribu ted to th e larger, national w o m en 's health m ovem ent. A lthough th e re is a developing lite ra tu re w hich exam ines w om en 's health in northw estern O n ta rio (Pitblado an d P o n g 1996; Suschnigg 1996; Southcott 1993), there is a n obv ious g ap in docum en ting how regional w om en them selves, view health (W akew ich 2000). F urther, there have been severa l analyses w hich have focussed o n the politics of fem in ist o rgan izing in C anada (Tudiver 1994; P ierson e t al. 1993; A dam son , Briskin a n d M cPhail 1988) how ever, there has been no analysis of reg iona l w o m e n 's o rgan iz ing a n d the health m ovem en t in n o rthw estern Ontario. I t is m y hope th a t th is thesis w ill contribute to the g row ing bo d y of regional h istorical lite ra tu re d o cum en ting one aspect of th e larger C anad ian w om en 's health Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 m ovem ent, in all its com plexity , an d as to ld th ro u g h a N orthern fem inist perspective. 1.9 PLAN OF THE THESIS In C h ap te r Two I describe the geographical a n d socio-cultural con texts of no rthw estern O ntario in w hich the w om en 's h e a lth m ovem en t evolved. I exam ine its rela tionsh ip to th e b roader w o m e n 's m ovem ent in no rthw estern O ntario . I give a chronological account o f the roo ts o f w om en 's h e a lth organ izing efforts beg inn ing w ith the W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee an d th e W om en 's H ealth A ction G roup (WHAG). In tu rn , I exam ine the W om en 's H ealth E duca tion Project (WHEP) w hich ran from 1982 th ro u g h to 1985. Finally, I describe th e W om en 's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (W H IN ) w hich existed as a non-profit w o m e n 's organization fro m 1985 until 1992. In constructing this social h istory I d ra w o n m y prim ary an d secondary source d a ta a s d iscussed earlier in th is chapter. In C h ap te r Three, I focus o n th e politics of w o m e n 's organizing. I look a t how the structu re a n d process of th e g ro u p s evolution, h o w they used consensus for decision-m aking, ho w w om en 's hea lth issues w ere defined for w om en liv ing in no rthw estern O ntario a n d w h y fu n d in g issues w e re critical to these particu lar initiatives. F u rth e r, I dem onstra te h o w this reg iona l case study is re la ted to the context of th e w id e r w om en 's h e a lth m ovem ent. T his analysis lays a fram ew ork for a discussion o f h o w the w om en perceived their collective identity (as d iscussed in C hapter Four) as linked to th e ir p rax is and the po litics o f their practice. F inally, I Reproduced with permission ot the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 touch on som e o f the particularly un ique features of W H IN including the w om en 's w orking en v ironm en t an d how the w om en 's roles as m o thers influenced th e ir organizing efforts. C hap te r F our lays o u t how the w om en w ho partic ipa ted in the w om en 's health o rgan iz ing efforts constructed reg ional and fem inist discourses a ro u n d identity. U sing F raser's (1992) pragm atic m odel of discourse theory , I examine h o w regional id en tity in tersected w ith fem in ist identity for th is particu lar w om en 's health organization. This chapter p rov ides an analytical look a t the tensions a n d contradictions experienced by the w om en in a ttem pting to define a collective fem inist an d regional identity for their organization. D etailed excerpts from th e interview s a re u sed to illustrate how the w om en 's identities w ere shaped in re la tion to the specific contexts th ro u g h w hich identities w ere being negotiated. Finally, in C hap ter Five I sum m arize and d raw together the analyses o n regional and fem in ist identity , both ind iv idua l and collective an d how the g roups identities in tersected w ith the politics o f their practice. I m ake som e concluding com m ents o n the significance of w om en 's health organizations in northw estern O ntario fro m 1980 - 1992. Further, I w ill suggest recom m endations for fu tu re research w h ich w o u ld be beneficial to understand ing the com plexities of fem inist identity as connected to w om en's health activism. I argue th a t by exam ining this case s tu d y th rough a fem in ist postm odern lens it is possible to u n d ers tan d the com plexities of the w om en 's groups praxis a n d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 iden tity as contingent o n th e m ultip le d iscourses w hich w ere con tex tual to the tim e a n d place in w hich th e w om en organized. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 CHAPTER 2 - THE HISTORY OF W OMEN'S HEALTH O RG ANIZING IN NORTHW ESTERN O NTARIO 2.1 INTRODUCTION In th is chap ter I describe b o th the geographical a n d socio-cultural contexts of th e thesis, the region of n o rth w es te rn O ntario, an d th e grassroots w o m en 's h ea lth o rgan iz ing efforts from 1980 u n til 1992 in the reg ion . I begin this c h ap te r by exam in ing the reg ion of n o rth w es te rn Ontario. I b eg in b y describ ing the reg ional characteristics of the social, po litical a n d economic landscape. I discuss the n a tu re of sing le-industry tow ns, an d th e iso lation w hich accom panies living in the reg ion a n d h ig h lig h t the w ays in w h ic h w om en 's social a n d econom ic w ell-being is experienced in th is context. In ad d itio n , I dem onstra te h o w regional id en tity w as cen tra l to the shape an d d ev e lo p m en t of w o m en 's health o rgan iz ing in n o rth w este rn O ntario. Subsequently , I discuss th e developm ent o f w o m en 's health activ ism in n o rth w es te rn O ntario. I exam ine w h a t regional w o m e n considered as p rim a ry h ea lth concerns an d how the w o m e n cam e together in a grassroots m ovem en t to o rgan ize a ro u n d specific w o m e n 's h ea lth issues. P rim arily descriptive, th is chap ter looks specifically a t the chronological events of w o m e n 's o rganizing efforts an d estab lishes a context for m y an a ly sis (in C hapter T hree a n d C hapter Four) o f the w o m en 's collective and ind iv idua l identities and the s tru c tu re , process an d tensions in h eren t in w om en 's health o rg an iz in g from 1980 -1992 in the region. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 2.2 THE REGION OF NORTHW ESTERN ONTARIO N o rth ern O ntario is a la rge , geographically iso lated reg ion constituting n inety p ercen t o f the province 's lan d m ass (D unk 1991). N orthw estern O ntario is one p a r t of th is la rger region stre tch in g from the M anitoba-O ntario border to, and inc lud ing the d istric t of T h u n d er Bay (Pitblado and Pong 1996). In northw estern O ntario , the largest city is T h u n d er Bay w ith a popu lation of 113,662 (Statistics C anada 1996). A lthough an u rb a n centre, it continues to be geographically and cu ltu rally iso lated in that it is a m in im u m of a day 's drive to e ither Sault Ste. M arie in the E ast o r W innipeg, M anitoba to the W est. Kenora, in th e Kenora-Rainy River D istrict a n d close to the M anitoba-O ntario bo rder is the second largest city in the reg ion w ith a popu lation of 10, 063 (Statistics Canada 1996). N u m ero u s sm aller tow ns a n d com m unities are sca ttered th roughou t the reg ion b o th eas t a n d w est of T h u n d er Bay. M any of these com m unities w ere orig inally estab lished as a resu lt o f p rim ary industry resource-based em ploym ent in m ills o r m ines. Residents o f these com m unities rely o n T hunder Bay as the nearest u rb an centre and travel len g th y d istances on secondary ro ad s for necessary u rb an am enities a n d access to h e a lth care services. N ecessities such as hosp ita l a n d den ta l services (including birth ing options*). In som e of the com m unities w o m en are n o t allow ed to g ive b irth in their local clinics, hosp itals or a t hom e a n d m u st travel to T hunder Bay o r W innipeg, M anitoba to deliver their babies (N orthw estern Ontario W om en 's H ealth In form ation N etw ork and R ed L ake W om en 's Inform ation G roup , 1990). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 legal services, sh o p p in g and entertainm ent, business opportunities, and national a ir transporta tion a re b u t a few of the reasons one m ight have to travel to Thunder Bay. Travel to a n d from T hunder Bay can be a t certain times, precarious as w eather dictates ro a d cond itions w ith the w in te r m onths lasting o n average six m on ths (from N ovem ber th ro u g h to April) of th e year. N orth of T hunder Bay and w est to the M anitoba b o rd e r there are several reserves w here F irst N ations people live around Jam es Bay th a t a re even further iso lated as there is n o road access to these com m unities (P itb lado an d Pong 1996). R esidents m ust e ither fly or boat be tw een these com m unities. In th e past, no rthw estern O ntario w as primzirily v iew ed as a resource h interland w ith forestry an d m ining as its staples. As well, the position of T h u n d er Bay as the fu rth e s t w est com m unity on L ake Superior allow ed for the developm ent of an im p o rtan t p o r t fo r the sh ipm ent of g rain from th e W est to the East. Traditionally, n u m ero u s em ploym ent opportun ities existed in the resource re la ted nulls, m ines a n d g ra in elevators and it w as the robust m ale population w ho w ere hired to fill these positions. W om en w o u ld often follow th e ir husbands to the sm aller com m unities ou tside of T hunder Bay w here secure em ploym ent in one of the local m ills o r m ines could be found . T here was little secondary or te rtia ry em ploym ent, th u s w om en could not find w o rk in paid positions and instead, carried sole or p rim ary responsib ility for the hom e a n d children. T oday, em ploym en t opportunities in the region have changed. A reas of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 em ploym ent have sh ifted aw ay from resou rce b ased jobs to positions focussed in the health , social a n d service sectors. Som e of these positions a re secure and pay w ell how ever, m an y of the jobs fo u n d in th e service sector a re low paying, tem porary or p a rt- tim e a n d w ithou t benefits. Yet, there exists in the public im agination the belief th a t the region p ro sp e rs as a resu lt o f th e jobs found in the resource driven econom y. This firm ly em b e d d ed no tion rem ains strongly en trenched in the h e a rts o f its inhabitants. A s one responden t explained in D unk's research on w orking-class cu lture in T h u n d e r Bay, "It's a w o rk in g m an 's town. E verybody carries a lu n ch bucket here" (D unk 1994:45). The n o tio n th a t Thunder Bay and no rthw estern O n tario are d e p en d e n t o n p rim ary resource industries and the traditional m ale em p loym en t tha t accom pan ies them con tribu tes to a strong collective regional m ascu lin is t identity fo u n d w ith in the population . T raditionally a n d presently , there ex ists a substantia l N orth -S ou th regional d isparity in health care betw een the n o rth e rn a n d sou thern p a rts of the province. T his d isparity g reatly affects "the n o rth ern q u a lity o f life and consequently , alters the perspectives on n o rth e rn w om en 's h e a lth need s" (Ramsay 1984). W ithin the reg ion itself, the ex tensive geography fu r th e r isolates com m unities from one ano ther an d there is 'iso la tio n w ith in iso la tion ' (R am say 1984). C om m unities and tow ns a re separated fro m one another by g rea t d istances and in m an y cases it is a m in im um fou r to e ig h t h o u r drive b etw een com m unities. A s previously n o ted , m any of these sm alle r com m unities a re single-industry Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 tow ns w hich lim it w om en 's participation in the lab o u r m arket. O ne w o m a n I interview ed exp la ined th a t although she w as form ally educated and experienced in m arketing a n d advertising , w h en she m oved to N ip igon (80 kilom etres from T hunder Bay), h e r choice of em ploym ent o p p o rtu n itie s w as either w ork ing as a checkout cash ier a t the local hardw are store o r as a w aitress in the local coffee shop . D iscouraged, sh e chose to stay a t hom e b usy ing herself w ith volunteer w ork u n til h e r children w ere bom . As w as explained by the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee in the original p ro p o sa l fo r the W om en's H ea lth E ducation Project, W om en are n o t em ployed in sign ifican t num bers by the m ajo r em ployers in the resource sector of the region as th e m ajority of jobs offered have b een traditionally defined as m ale work. (O rig inal W H EP proposal 1981: 7) The lack o f em ploym ent opportun ities in mzmy of the sm aller com m unities in the reg ion le a d to bo redom an d fru stra tion for m an y of the women. For those w ho have been ed u ca ted a n d experienced in a p a rticu la r em ploym ent field, be in g unable to w o rk increases their sense of isolation. Further, m ost of these com m unities h av e m m im al health care facilities a n d few recreational a n d en tertainm ent am enities. Because they lack the social an d cultural offerings available in la rger com m unities and the m eans to access th em readily, opportun ities fo r w om en are few a n d the experience of con tinuous iso lation is alw ays present. The ratio o f healthcare services a n d p ro v id e rs in northw estern O n ta rio to population is a b o u t ha lf th a t of the res t of the p rov ince a n d studies have show n th a t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 the h ea lth sta tus of the p o pu la tion is inferior to the provincial norm s (Southcott 1993; R am say 1984). A lthough the O ntario M inistry of H ealth has initiated p rog ram s to recru it and re ta in physicians and a llied health care professionals (U nderserv iced A rea Program ) to th e region since 1969, northw estern O ntario continues to face significant physic ian an d other healthcare professional shortages (A nderson a n d Rosenberg 1990:35). In addition, th ere a re o ther neglected factors w hich a re equally im portant in de term in ing the health sta tu s of the population such as socio-econom ic status, gender, a n d geography^ (Southcott 1993) sim ilar to o ther parts of the province. W om en consum e healthcare services m ore often than m en (Pitblado an d Pong 1996). Lack of services affect h o w w om en are able to control their o w n health an d the h e a lth of their families. Because health care professionals w orking in n o rthw estern O ntario are bu rd en ed by heavy w ork loads an d m inim al health care services th e re a re lim ited choices for w om en w hich a d d s to the stress level w h en try ing to m eet their ow n h ea lth needs and those of the ir families (WHEP Final R eport 1986). W om en are also likely to lack assertiveness or to be equally heard In m any provincial governm ent stud ies and reports of health in N orthw estern O ntario , th e focus tends to revolve a ro u n d the rec ru itm en t an d reten tion of physicians to the region. This suggests th a t w hen defin ing health, a n d healthcare issues, th e problem s of health sta tus in a population cou ld be im proved if sufficient physicians were em ployed in the region. This provincial focus is in part, problem atic in that it den ies the com plexity of issues in defin ing health for a g iven popu lation . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 w h en dealing w ith th e ir doctors w hich increases their sense of fru s tra tio n (WHEP Final Report 1986). All o f these healthcare issu es overlap to increase th e isolation an d stress experienced by w om en living in these northern com m unities. The healthcare th a t does exist is n o t som eth ing th a t is taken for g ra n te d by its population, particu larly w om en. The rea lities a n d experiences of th o se liv ing in the reg io n reflect a geographically a n d socially d ivergen t p ictu re w h e n attem pting to en v is io n health o r healthy com m unities in the N orthw est reg ion . Consequently, w h e n w om en began conceptualizing a n d initiating d iscussion a ro u n d w om en's h e a lth in the late 1970s and early 1980s there w as m uch excitem ent a n d enthusiasm . The large d om ain of w o m en 's health w as new an d y e t to be explored. D irection for developm ent in th is vast realm of opportun ity w as w ide open and in 1980, regional w om en began to com e together to talk abou t w o m en 's health (W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M inutes 1980). 2.3 THE W O M EN'S MOVEMENT IN NORTHW ESTERN O NTARIO The w o m en 's m ovem ent in no rthw estern O ntario began to tak e shape in the late 60 s w ith w o m en 's liberation m eetings b rin g in g w om en of all backgrounds together to d iscuss cu rren t w om en 's issues a n d p la n the first no rthw estern O ntario w om en 's conference^* (K arlstedt 1987). Soon a fte r the conference, severa l sm aller 10 The first no rthw estern O ntario w om en 's conference w as held a t C onfederation College on A pril 6-8,1973. Conference o rg an ize r 's expected 100 w o m e n an d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 consciousness-raising groups w e re form ed, each w o rk in g o n specific issues (single parenting, o ld e r w om en, lack o f subsid ized childcare, a b o rtio n reform , a n d such) im portant to th e ir m em bers. A reg iona l w om en 's cen tre w as fo rm ed in 1974, w ith funding from th e Secretary of S ta te to h ire six w om en to de liver counselling and referral, crisis h o u sin g and rap e crisis, drop-in and in fo rm atio n centre an d services to w om en in T h u n d er Bay (K arlsted t 1987). The Northern Woman Journal began publishing a fem in ist n e w sp a p er in 1973 as a m eans of p ro v id in g w o m en w ith a forum to p ro m o te fem inist aw aren ess a n d action in th e reg io n (K arlsted t 1987). W om en's s tu d ies classes a t the local college, the N o rth e rn W om en 's C red it Union, and the N o rth w este rn O ntario In ternational W om en 's D ecade C ouncil am ong several o ther in itia tives" took h o ld in the region as p a r t of th e larger w om en 's movem ent. (K arlsted t 1987). The w o m en 's m ovem ent in northw estern O ntario w a s developing a t a sim ilar pace to o ther cities, tow ns a n d reg ions across C anada w ith m any of th e sam e national issues facing w om en in th e N orth . How ever, th e re w ere also issues facing w ere shocked a n d thrilled w h e n 600 w om en attended. T hem es discussed a t the conference included: day care, sex-role stereotyping, w o rk in g w om en, w elfare rights, abortion , w o m en in politics, h igh school w om en, sing le parents, w om en and the m edia, w o m en 's centres, o lder wom en, native w o m e n an d w om en in the arts. The key n o te address w as de livered by C anada 's th e n m o st visible rad ical feminist, Bormie K reps (K arlstedt 1987). n For a m ore com prehensive overv iew of w om en's o rg an iz in g efforts in northw estern O n ta rio see Northioestem Ontario Status o f W omen Initiatives 1973- 1987 by F iona K arlstedt, 1987. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 regional w om en w h ich w ere specific to the iso lation a n d lack of opportunities (em ploym ent, recrea tional, service, educational) of h in te rland life. 2.4 THE W O M EN 'S HEALTH M OVEM ENT IN NORTHW ESTERN ONTARIO W om en's h e a lth organizing in northw estern O ntario has parallelled a n d progressed a t m u c h th e sam e pace as som e of the m ore u rb a n places in C anada. A lthough there has nev er been a w om en's health clinic in northw estern O ntario , w om en 's health collectives an d groups have existed in v a rio u s forms. Some have been fairly sm all a n d loosely organized such as the W om en and H ealth Sub­ com m ittee in 1980, w h ich h a d functioned as one d im ension of the N orthw estern O ntario W om en 's D ecade Council". (W om en an d H ealth Sub-coim nittee M inutes 1980). There have b een consciousness-raising g roups a nd w o m en 's health projects w hich have p red o m in an tly organized w ith the in ten t to sh are w om en's h ea lth inform ation in a reg io n w here health inform ation w as sparse. In part, the w om en 's health m ovem ent in no rthw estern Ontario has developed in th is w ay because of the regional context a n d th e distinctly isolated na tu re of the h in te rlan d area. H ow ever, 12 The N orthw estern O n ta rio W om en's Decade Council (NW OW DC) evolved o u t o f the N orthw estern O n tario International W om en 's D ecade C oordinating Council (NW OIW DCC) in 1982 w hen fund ing becam e available to hire a full tim e coordinator. T he NW OIW DCC w as originally fo rm ed in 1976 "to serve as a resource for, a n d lia ison betw een, area w om en 's g roups a n d services w orking to im prove the econom ic, social an d political s ta tus of N orthw este rn Ontario w om en" (K arlstedt 1987). Since 1982, the W om en 's D ecade C ouncil has continued to w o rk o n p ro m o ting "non-partisan in terest in a n d action on sta tus of w om en issues in N o rth w este rn Ontario" (K arlstedt 1987). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 there have been over tim e, g roups o f w om en and fem inists in northw estern O ntario w ho have been politically vocal, a n d have successfully o rg an ized around w om en 's health. The W om en 's H ealth A ction G roup (WHAG) evo lved in 1983 from the w o rk o f the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee. W HAG w as fo rm ed because w om en saw a need a n d desired to initiate change in the area o f w o m en 's health. It began in 1981 w hen tw o m em bers of the W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee participated in the first p rov incial conference o n w om en 's health he ld in Toronto on M arch 27- 29, 1981 a t th e R yerson Polytechnical Institu te" (Strategies for Well Being Conference P roceedings 1981). A t tha t conference, w om en from across n o rth w estern O ntario were able to m eet and discuss n o rth e rn w om en 's hea lth issues. Collectively they recognized th a t there w as a sho rtage of doctors a n d services because of th e isolation and distance betw een N o rth ern com m unities; a n d th a t the health n e ed s of w om en living in northw estern O n ta rio w ere d ifferent from those of w o m en liv ing in urban centres in part, because of the transien t n a tu re o f the popu la tion (including health care 13 The conference, in itia ted and fu n d ed by the H ealth P rom otion Directorate, H ealth and W elfare C anada, w as called th e Strategies fo r Well-Being: a conference fo r action on zuomen's health. The conference w as a tten d ed by tw o hundred and fifty w om en rep resen tin g five reg ions in O ntario (Toronto, Southw estern O ntario, S ou theastern O ntario, N orthw estern O ntario a n d N ortheastern O ntario). Several ou t-of province w o m en a ttended as w ell (Strategies for Well- Being Conference P roceedings 1981). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 professionals) (S trategies fo r W ell-Being C onference Proceedings 1981). U pon their re tu rn to T h under Bay, th e w om en invo lved w ith the W om en a n d H ealth Sub­ com m ittee w a n ted to d o som ething to im p ro v e w om en 's access to health inform ation. They h a d som e inform ation o n specific w om en 's h ea lth issues such as ch ild birth ing, b ir th con tro l, an d abortion a n d believed th a t there w as a need to share this in fo rm ation a n d m ake it availab le to all w om en in the com m unity (In terv iew 6 W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M em ber, W H A G M em ber). In o rd e r to obtain fu n d s fro m the H ealth P ro m o tio n Directorate, H ealth an d W elfare C an ad a they fo rm ed th e W om en 's H ealth In fo rm ation G roup (W HAG) creating an organizational s tru c tu re w ith a Board of D irectors to oversee projects. The creation of W H A G allow ed th em to be au tonom ous f ro m NW OW DC, an d be fu lly engaged w ith w om en 's h e a lth issues (Interview 11 W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee M em ber, W HAG M em ber, W HEP C oordinator). W HAG m em bers w o u ld m eet on a reg u la r basis a t th e W om en 's C entre o n Bay S treet in T h under Bay to share inform ation, com pile resources^"* in an accessible w ay and th ink o f w ays th a t the in form ation could b e passed o n to o thers (In terv iew 6 W om en a n d H ealth Sub­ com m ittee M em ber, W H A G M ember). The W HAG w o m e n resided in T h u n d er Bay a n d w orked o u t of the W om en's C en tre as a fem inist collective. W HAG o rg an ized consciousness-raising an d self- 14 WHAG had in its possession a rare and difficult find in Northwestern Ontario - Our Bodies Ourselves (1971) published by the Boston W omen's Health Book Collective. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 help groups fo r w om en living in T h u n d e r Bay (Interview 6 W om en a n d H ealth Sub­ com m ittee M em ber, W HAG M em ber). The w ork done by the health collective m em bers o verlapped w ith several o th er w om en 's o rgan iz ing efforts in Thunder Bay as m any of th e m em bers w ere in v o lv ed w ith the local w o m en 's m ovem ent in a variety of capacities (Interview 3 W H E P C oordinator). W H A G m em bers continued to sit on the N orthw estern O n tario W om en 's Decade C ouncil, belonged to the W om en's C en tre , a n d w orked o n th e Northern Woman JoumaP^ (Interview 11 W om en and H ea lth Sub-com m ittee M em ber, W HAG m em ber, W H EP Coordinator). The journal w as an im portan t in s tru m e n t for sharing all so rts of inform ation pertinen t to w o m en across the v ast d istances of no rthw estern O ntario . Im portantly, this fem inist jo u rn a l devoted som e o f its space to covering p e rtin en t w om en 's health issues and a t tim es, w ould pub lish a n en tire ed ition fea tu rin g w ide-ranging issues a round w o m en 's health^*. 15 The Northern Woman Journal w as a lso ru n as a fem inist collective (Interview 3 W HEP C oordinator). I t had begun as a new sletter o r b u lle tin inform ing w om en abou t the first no rthw este rn O n tario w o m en 's conference, th e Northern Women's Conference h e ld in T hunder Bay o n A p ril 6-8,1973 (K arlsted t 1987). Because of the conference's success (organizers h a d h o p e d th a t 100 w o m en w o u ld a ttend and recorded a ttendance w as 600), the w o m e n form ed a collective an d began to publish a fem in ist journal for w o m en liv ing in the n o rth w es t reg ion of O ntario in 1973 (K arlstedt 1987). The journal w a s pub lished th ro u g h to 1997. 16 The Northern Woman Journal. "Health" Vol. 6. Issue, January/February 1980. Topics covered included: childbirth, DES, b irth control, mastectomy, hormones, abortion. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 2.5 THE W O M E N 'S H EA LTH ED U CA TIO N PROTECT fW H EPh 1982-1985 In 1982, th e W om en 's H ealth Education Project (WHEP) w as b irthed from the local grassroots w om en 's h ealth organizing o f W HAG in T h u n d er Bay. In this phase, the o rgan iz ing becam e m ore form alized a n d structured (Interview 11 W om en and H ealth S ubcom m ittee Member, W HAG M ember, W HEP Coordinator). The idea for W H EP o rig inated a t a second reg ional Strategies fo r Well Being Conference he ld in D ry den , O n tario in 1981 (W om en and H ealth S ubcom m ittee M inutes 1981). T he overarch ing concern expressed w as that w om en in northw estern O ntario had specific h ea lth needs which w ere n o t being m et. U pon learning of possible funding th ro u g h the provincial H ealth P rom otion D irectorate, H ealth an d W elfare Canada, tw o W HAG m em bers w rote a proposal to secure fund ing for a p ilo t project concerned w ith w om en 's health needs in no rthw estern O ntario. The proposal w ritte n by th e W H A G w om en w as accepted in 1982, a n d the group w as aw arded fu n d in g of $325,000.00 for a three year dem onstration project. The a im of the project w as to su rvey the health needs of w om en living in the isolated N orthern region o f O n tario an d th en compose a n d deliver various w orkshops to m eet the identified needs (Sparkes 1983). The pro ject's goal w as to connect w om en across the reg ion in fourteen target communities^^, spread over an area of 17 The target communities were: Red Lake, Sioux Lookout, Dryden, Pickle Lake, Kenora, Fort Frances, Atikokan, Geraldton, Nipigon, Marathon, Terrace Bay, Manitouwadge and Thunder Bay (WHEP Final Report 1986). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 approxim ately 151,000 square kilometres^®, by p ro v id in g health educa tion in the form of w orkshops an d in fo rm ation abou t health issues an d health services th a t w ere of concern for regional w o m en (K arlstedt 1987). Initially, four project coo rd inato rs, each w ork ing part-tim e, w ere h ired to fill the two full-tim e positions (In terv iew 1 WHEP C oordinator). It w as the W HAG m em bers w h o w ere responsible fo r advertising an d selecting the coord inators (Interview 11 W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M em ber, W HAG M em ber, W HEP Coordinator). W hile there w ere severa l qualities the h ir in g com m ittee w as looking for, each coord inato r w as p rim arily chosen because she h ad "a positive philosophical orien tation to w o m en 's roles, an aw areness of w om en 's h ea lth issues, a n d a strong fem inist perspective w ith a belief th a t everyone has som eth ing to offer" (W HEP Final R eport 1986). O nce hired, i t w as decided by the W H A G m em bers a n d the new ly hired coo rd ina to rs that the W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project w o u ld be non-hierarchical in o rganization a n d consensus w o u ld be strived for w hen m ak ing project decisions (Interview 3 W H EP C oordinator). The pro ject began in its f irs t year by u n d ertak in g a m ajor su rv ey ” of 18 The project a rea extended w est to K enora, no rth to Pickle Lake, east to M anitouw adge an d sou th to the C anad ian /U .S . b o rd er (W HEP Final R epo rt 1986). 19 See "A Survey of Women's Health Needs in Northwestern Ontario" by Jane Ramsay for the Northwestern Ontario Women's H ealth Education Project (WHEP). Submitted to the Ontario Health Promotion Directorate, Health and Welfare Canada, February 1984. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 N orthw estern O ntario TARGET COM M UNITIES 1) M anitouw adge 2) M arathon 3) G erald ton 4) Terrace Bay 5) N ipigon 6) T hunder Bay 7) Ignace 8) D ryden 9) Pickle Lake 10) A tikokan 11) Sioux L ookout 12) Kenora 13) Fort Frances 14) Red Lake F igu re A T aken from the W H EP Final Report, 1986: 5. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 w om en 's health needs. T he survey w as d istribu ted to e ig h t h u n d red w om en th ro u g h o u t the N o rth w est reg ion (WHEP Final R eport 1986). A lthough the survey developm ent, im plem enta tion and analysis w as dem and ing an d difficult, the coord inato rs persevered a n d in tha t sam e year of the project, they developed a w orkshop an d kit en titled Cabin Fever (In terview 1 W HEP C oordinator). This first w orkshop k it dealt w ith iden tify ing the v a rio u s health stressors for w om en tha t cou ld be associated w ith N o rth ern living a n d isolation (W HEP Final R eport 1986). These Cabin Fever w o rkshops w ere im p o rtan t as they confirm ed to those involved w h a t the survey had been show ing abou t w om en 's health needs an d concerns in the region; th a t w om en fe lt isolated and th a t they w anted a n d need ed health in form ation and resources (Interview 8 W H EP C oordinator). The w orkshop, once com pleted w as taken o u t in to all of the fou rteen com m unities b y the coordinators. O ver the second a n d th ird years of the w om en 's health project, the coo rd ina to rs developed a fu rth er nine w orkshop kits (W HEP Final R eport 1986). The them es of the W HEP p o p u la r education w orkshops w ere v a ried b u t all shared the specific goal of ad d ress in g the w o m en 's health issues w hich h ad been docum en ted th rough th e regional su rvey (Interview 8 W H EP C oordinator). S im ilarly, additional w o rk sh o p them es w ere identified th ro u g h the in itial Cabin Fever w orkshops as w o m en participating vocalized other h ea lth concerns w hich th ey felt to be pertinen t (W H EP Final R eport 1986). Because of th e g row ing dem and fo r w orkshop delivery in th e target com m unities, the W HEP coord inato rs decided Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 th a t reg ional w om en sh o u ld be tra ined in the de liv ery of the kits and pa id honorarium s to facilitate (In terv iew 1 W HEP C oord inator, W H IN Board M em ber). C onsequently , one o f th e jobs of the WHEP coord inators becam e tra in ing com m unity rep resen ta tives in the delivery an d facilitation of these w orkshops (W HEP Final R eport 1986). Fourteen vo lun teer com m unity representatives w ere chosen by the coordinators th rough con tact w ith the initial w orkshop as w ell as advertisem ents posted in local new spapers (In terview 8 W HEP C oordinator). A lthough, the honorarium s to be pa id fo r facilitating the w orkshops w ere lim ited, W HEP coordinators believed th a t b y offering training in facilitation skills, public speaking, m aking effective use of the m ed ia , an d com m unity developm ent w om en w o u ld be in terested in w ork ing as reg iona l representatives (W H EP Final Report 1986). Also, because th ere w ere so few em ploym en t opportunities for w om en in m any of these com m unities, w om en w ere excited to have paid positions o n the W om en's H ealth E ducation Project (In terv iew 12 W HEP Regional Representative, W H IN Board M em ber; W H EP Final R eport 1986). The response to the ad s fo r W HEP com m im ity representatives from w om en living in th e ta rge t com m unities w as im pressive (In terv iew 1 W HEP C oordinator, W HIN Board M ember). T he w om en w ho w ere h ired w ere eager to begin w orking , o rganizing a n d setting u p w o rk sh o p s a round the im p o rtan t w om en 's health issues. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 i . ' ' : 0 * c 2 2 EMPLOYMENT Figure B 40 HELP W ANTED- GENERAL The Northwestern^ On­ Taken from T he D ryden Observer. tario Women’s Health Education Project Is W ednesday, D ecem ber 26,1984 looking for % ^ . • CO/yiMUNlTY: WOMEN ' ATCENTION TRjVPPERS? -D To attend a three day Sl M Raw F u r Co. buyer will be . paid session in Thunder at the LenVer Inn Motel from Bay January 10-20.' ' - 8 a .m .-10 a .m . J a n u a r y 4. 1985. For fu rth e r inform ation ■The focus of the session jfcall 983-2712.^-^ * - ~ j2 'w t 11 'b e h e a 1 1 h "T H E N O R T H W E S T E R N ' in fo rm a tio n -sh a r in g O n ta r io W o m e n ’s H e a lth with time devoted to ex­ Education Project is looking ploring what ' health for c o m m u n ity w o m en to resources are available, attend a th ree day paid session d e v e l o p i n g g r o u p in Thunder B ay Jânuiauy 18- -facilitation ' Mills, and 20. The focus o f the session will meeting other women be health inform ation-sharing from other regional - with tim e devoted to exploring c o m m u n i t i e s wi t h w hat h e a l th reso u rces a re s im llv Interests. available, develop ing group Travel, accommodation facilita tiohskillsrand meeting ' ■ and m ea ls w ill - be other women- from o ther rer • co v ered , In terested gional com munities w ito jim ir; women should reply; in lar in terests. T ravel, ‘accomr ' writing' dutilnlng "In- modation and m eals'w ill be co- ' terestf, involvement in v e re d . I n te r e s te d 'w o m e n • their '..communityV and should reply in w riting outlin­ other T relevant -par­ ing interests, involvement in ticulars t o : ; their com m unity,'and other re­ N.W.OrWomen’s Health levant p a rtic u la rs to: NWO ■ • Education Project, • * Women’s H e a lth E ducation ' BAN: Cumberland St.-. Project, 8A N . Cum berland St., - " Thunder BayJ P7A 4L1 \ Thunder Bay, Ont. PTA 4 H . Deadline Deadline: Ja n u a ry 3 , 1985.d26 Figure C 34.36 T aken from the C hronicle Tournai (Thunder Bay) D ecem ber 22,1984 E m ploym ent O pportun ities Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 stress, nu trition a n d b irth ing as iden tified th ro u g h the survey (W H EP Final Report 1986). O ne w om an I in terv iew ed to ld m e h o w excited and h o n o u red she w as to be ch o sen as her conunun ity 's representative. I th in k th a t w h a t a ttrac ted m e to it w as w o m en 's health... a n d it w as w om en. A lo t of th e volunteer w o rk I h a d been do ing w as w ith m en and m en 's organizations... n o t necessarily m en b u t m en 's organizations... and I w a n te d som eth ing w ith w om en... a n d w om en 's health... I w as really in terested in w o m en 's health . I h a d ju s t tak en a Sociology of M edicine course and w as rea lly in terested in it... a n d the tra in ing they offered... th ey o ffered to train m e as a rep resen ta tive and I ju s t th o u g h t i t w ould be rea lly in teresting an d I rem em ber w h e n I first app lied I w anted ... I really w an ted to be chosen... and w h en they actually p h o n ed m e I w as rea lly honoured... I th o u g h t th a t y o u know , th a t th is w as a rea l honour to be chosen as a represen ta tive (In terv iew 12 W HEP C om m unity R epresentative, W H IN B oard M em ber). She w as honoured to becom e a com m unity representative a n d excited that she w o u ld be trained in facilitation skills. She exp la ined how she fe lt nervous to have su ch a public position a n d really ga ined confidence th ro u g h the W H EP training sessions. M y experience w ith W H E P w as ... trem endous... I t really was... I w as at a p o in t in m y life w here I w as a little m ouse, Üiat's a go o d d esc rip tio n of it... I d o n 't know h o w else to say it. A lth o u g h I w as involved w ith a lo t of organizations... I w a s v e ry quiet... very tim id ... rare ly w o u ld I speak to people ... definitely w o u ld n 't speak to som eone unless th ey spoke to me... and W H EP a n d W H IN really helped m e g e t o v er th a t and feel m ore confident... In fact it really... w h en w e w en t to the tra in ing sessions w hen it cam e tim e... I rem em ber th e first tim e w h en it cam e m y tu rn to speak... I sw ear m y Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 h e a rt w as ju s t pound ing o u t of m y chest... an d then afterw ards w hen we talked everyone w as saying... yeah, I feel the same... and I cam e to realize t h a t ... that I 'm n o t a lo n e ... Yeah... But you know ... in fact th a t is w h a t really attracted m e to it... th a t they w ould tra in me in facilitation skills and now ... A n d n o w y o u teach a n d s tan d in f ro n t o f a room of peo p le everyday... I do... an d I d o w orkshops a t the d ro p of a hat... I d o n 't even th ink abou t it anym ore., (haha)... A nd they d id th a t for us... they gave us a lo t of skills a nd th en forced us to use them ... to go ou t and use th em a n d try them out.. A nd it w as great. .. Through th e experiences an d skills gained w ork ing w ith W HEP and W H IN this w om an 's life w as changed. All of the w om en in terv iew ed w ho had b eg u n as com m unity represen tatives expressed sim ilar sen tim ents w hen reflecting back over their experiences w ith WHEP. They w ere positive life-changing experiences, particularly th e tra in ing sessions, w hich in tu rn led th e w om en into continued w o rk around w o m en 's health , m any eventually becom ing W H IN Board m em bers. T he first of the com m unity representative tra in in g sessions, a conference called Shared Perspectives w as held in T hunder Bay d u rin g the w inter of th ird y ear (1985) (W H EP Final R eport 1986). It w as a tten d ed by thirty-tw o w om en fro m fourteen com m unities (W HEP Final R eport 1986). A s w as explained by one o f the coordinators, " there w as a heightened aw areness w ith in the region of health issues Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 an d com m unity needs. O n a personal level, w om en had th e opp o rtu n ity to develop new skills a n d bu ild on their self-esteem " (W H IN Files 1989). In all, th e re w ere three "S h ared Perspectives" tra in ing sessions in the th ird year of the W H EP project (WHEP F inal R eport 1986). All o f the train ing sessions focussed on facilitation skills, u s in g th e m edia, public sp eak in g an d com m unity developm ent (W H EP Final R eport1986). If a com m unity rep resen ta tive w as unable to attend one o f the sessions it w as h e r responsib ility to find a rep lacem ent from the com m unity. A s w as explained in th e W H EP final report, " reg a rd less of their age, education, o r econom ic background, the w om en shared th e conviction th a t w om en in their com m unities needed health inform ation" (WHEP Final R eport 1986). The train ing sessions n o t only b rough t reg ional w om en together to discuss w om en 's health issues in northw estern O ntario ; they also provided w o m en w ith practical skills, confidence a n d a desire to be invo lved an d active in th e ir com m unities. The W H EP w orkshop kits w e re in dem and . There w ere requests for th em b o th in the reg io n an d from o ther w o m en 's health organizations across Canada (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinators, W H IN B oard M embers). E arly in the project, the coordinators w o rk ed on pu tting th e k its together. The coord inato rs decided to u se an adu lt educa tion m odel of p o p u la r education techniques to form ulate the w orkshop kits™ (Interview 3 W H EP C oordinator). In u tilis ing this m ethod the 20 The form ula fo r the kits an d the w orkshops follow ed several principles as outlined in the W H EP Final R eport (1986). F irst, the w orkshop facilitator w ould Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 coord ina to rs w ere able to de-em phasize the n o tio n of 'e x p e rt ' (Interview 1 W HEP C oord inato r, W H IN Board M em ber). It encouraged w om en to participate in their o w n learn ing abou t health , a n d acknow ledged th a t w om en in th e ir ow n com m unities h a d know ledge a n d understand ing ab o u t h ea lth issues w h ich could b e d ra w n on as a resource. F inally , the kits encouraged w o m en to take an active role in in itia ting change both ind iv idua lly and as a com m unity (Interview 3 W HEP C oord inator). As the project p rogressed a n d the coord inators becam e busy w ith rec ru itin g a n d tra in in g vo lun teers/fac ilita to rs and m anag ing the various day-to-day tasks of th e project, w om en w ere h ire d as project w orkers to develop the w o rkshop kits (In terv iew 4 W H EP C oord inator, W H IN Board M em ber). All of the kits fo llow ed th e p o p u la r education fo rm u la w hich w as refined by th e coordinators a n d the p ro jec t w orkers as the project p rogressed . The facilitators an d coordinators learned fro m th e ir experiences of h o ld in g w orkshops w h ere there w ere gaps in the kits (In terv iew 8 W HEP C oord inator). By add ing fu rth e r resources and in fo rm ation and in itia te a process of sharing pe rso n a l experiences re la tin g to the specific issue or top ic of the kit. Sym ptom s o r experiences w ou ld be lis ted an d in so d o ing , the w o m e n partic ipating in the w o rk sh o p w ould h a v e the ir experiences v a lida ted . T he facilitator w ou ld then a d d som e basic in fo rm ation o r facts about the issue ta k e n from the resource kit. T he g ro u p partic ipa ting w o u ld then w ork to g e th er o n fo rm ula ting o r identifying possib le solutions. T he facilitator w ould a ssis t the g ro u p in developing and se ttin g goals to m ake th e desired changes. The coord ina to rs w ou ld then encourage the group to fo llow th ro u g h w ith th e ir p lan o f action. As w ell, the coord inato rs and the com m un ity representatives w o u ld th e n be available to provide on -go ing support a n d resources to the w om en. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 F ig u r e D T aken from The Echo (M anitouw adge) T hursday , O ctober 13,1983 r n N A L N U T R I T I O N In t h e s e c o n d pa> I of t h e w o r k s h o p , w o m e n will e x a m i n e p e r s o n a l m id so c ia l f a c t o r s which cou ld W O R K S H O P p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m g Mling liigf, q u o l i l y fo ' d . S m n e o f l l ie top ic s in th is pui i o r e loc/t o f l i m e o m j / o r m o n n y ’Wl iy Ecjl l l t owi i flic.»?' is 111® l i l l e o f l i i e f inal a n d r e s i s l u n c e b y oi l °i m e m b e r s o f l ire fcmiily. w o t U s l i O | ) i n ll io W o n i o n ciri'.l N u l i i l i on Set i es S[ j - I h e s e s s i o n v/ill i nd w i th o d i s c u s s i o ' ol i n o l m i c s u n s u i a d b y l l io Moi lliv/®si nn i (Ji i lci r io VVonien’s w a y s lo i m p r o v e f h : nu l r i l i o n o f you i S ' II oi id y o - u I l*»ullli E d u c a l i o i i r toi«Jcl . lorii i ly. I l ie f i is l l iui f of l l ie w o i l t s l i o p wi l l p i o v i d e w o m e n In M o r i i l o u w a d g e ' h e w o r k s h b p l o k o s p la ce on ( - wi l l i on o p p o i l u n i l y lo l a k e o i td in-d®pll i l o o k ol lli® l o b e r 18 ol / :3U p.m. ol lire R e c r e a l i o n (.®niiu ( \ , | | g i o s s f o c l o i s w h i c h e l f ec i Ihw n u t r i l i o n o l v a l u e of 1176 3 8 4 7 for h ' - i h e i le loils . f ood . I h o s e i n c l u d e s o m e o l li ie l e c l m i q u e s i h r o u g h f o o d is c h u n g o d f to tn ils r o w n o l u i u l f o t i n lo th e p r o c e s s e d p r o d u c i s w i t h w h i c h w e o r e f a m i l i a r . Al so , w o y s ill w h i c h t h e s e p i u d u c i s a r e d i s p l a y e d - a n d a d ­ v e r t i s e d lo e n c o u r a g e us lo b u y wil l b e d i s c u s s e d . Figure E T aken from The Regional (Red Lake) A pril 25,1984 E ploring Life C hanges w ork sh op d ea ls w ith m ythes about m en op au se and aging E A R I' A I, I, S - behavior, raging hor­ wom en of all ages to ex ­ t i ve group ac l i vni cs S ep a ra lit ig llte facts m on es. fils of anger and p lo r e th e . a t t i t ude s , w here there is sharing from the m ytlis Uiat sur­ em otion all classed as m y ster ies and m yths of inform ation and ex round m enopause and t h e s y m p t o i n s o f surrounding m enopause perience am ong Ihos» agin g is llte focus of a m enopause. and aging. The 2'-.. hour i n v o l v e d h a v e been worksliop entitled "E x­ In fact, the effects of workshop looks at the d em o n stra ted as the ploring Life Changes m enopause are not all a c tu a l p h y s io lo g ic a l m ost effective way for to be sponsored by Uie that established. Until a ch an ges that o"cur at w om en to gain a belter N orthw estern . Ontario v ery recent surge of this tim e, a s well as understanding of these W om en’s Health • Pro­ m ed ica l and ' scientific so m e of the changes in su bjects. je c t in 14 com m unities. research on the subject, roles and relationships " E x p l o r i n g L i f e If you have ever heard ( no doubt related to tlie that are p revalen t dur­ C hanges’’ wil' aim to in­ som eon e attribute the current a g e of the bulk ing m id life . Prevention sp ire and n v’ ivate par­ beliavior of a woman of the North American of m id life health risks, ticipants tow irds this over forty t o . the fact population), very little su rgical m enopause and process. th a t s h e is " g o in g con crete research ex­ t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l In E a r Fal l s , the through the change’’, isted . Very often the. E strogen R eplacem ent workshop wiR be held you liave been exposed m yth s and negative at- ' Therapy will be dealt April 25 from V 9:30p.m. to an attitude that many titudes are a result of a w i t h d u r i n g t he in Room or te of the p e o p le h a v e tow ard lack of iufprinatiun and workshop. Spruce ;3li eat School. m enopause and ap.itig. understanding. M enopause and aging For further information W omen in mid life ir e T h is workshop has a re natural processes in p lease coitto< t Carol at a ccu sed of ii l ati' - il b e e n d e s i g n e d f or a w om an’s life. Suppor­ 222-2-193. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 constan tly u p d a tin g the kits, the w orkshop kits w ere k e p t cu rren t and responsive to th e d iversity found w ithin the various northern com m unities (Interview 4 W H EP C oord inato r, W H IN Board M em ber). The titles of the orig inal w orkshops included: 1. C abin Fever 2. W om en and N u tritio n 3. W om en and Stress: C op ing w ith N o rth ern Living 4. Exploring Life C hanges: A W orkshop o n M enopause and Aging 5. Breaking the D iet H abit: A Positive A pproach to Body Image 6. Patient's Rights a n d Responsibilities: A ctive C onsum er A w areness 7. P reventing M enstrual Stress: D em ystifying the M enstrual Cycle 8. Fam ily C entred C hildbirth : Pro, Cons, O p tions in N orthw estern O ntario 9. Birth Control: B eing in C ontrol The w orkshops w ere organ ized and advertised w ith in the various com m unities by the com m unity representatives (Interview 8 W HEP C oordinator). Those in te rested in participating in the w orkshops d id n o t have to confirm their a ttendance thus, the facilitators w ere never sure of h o w m an y w om en w o u ld show up to a particu lar w orkshop (Interview 12 W HEP R egional Representative, W H IN Board M em ber). It w as im portan t th a t the kits and activities p lanned w ere flexible and cou ld be ad ap ted to sm aller o r larger groups of w o m en (WHEP Final R eport 1986). Som e of th e w orkshop topics w ere m ore popu lar th a n others. The w orkshop on Women and Stress was particu larly successful (In terview 8 W HEP C oordinator). In M anitouw adge, fifty-three w o m en a ttended an d in Kenora, fifty-six w om en a tten d ed (W HEP Final R eport1986). H ow ever, the N u tritio n w orkshop advertised Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 as Why Eat Brown Rice?, w as not as successful an d few w o m en participated (Interview 8 W H E P C oordinator). S im ilarly , th e level of ind iv idua l participation varied by co m m u n ity (W HEP Final R eport 1986). In som e, w om en w ere very open to discussion a n d exp lo ring their experiences a n d feelings to w ard s a particular issue. In o thers, the w o m en w ere m ore com fortab le w ith a lec tu re style form at (Interview 1 W H E P C oord inato r, W HIN B oard M em ber). Because of the flexible structure o f th e k its, th e com m unity representatives could gear th e w o rk sh o p s to the needs of th e w o m en partic ipa ting an d to the tim e fram e available (W H EP Final Report 1986). U p o n evaluation o f the project the coordinators fe lt th a t the w orkshops w ere one of the m ost positive aspects of the project in p a r t because th ey w ere flexible fo r d ifferen t g roups o f w om en and because they w e re ad ap tab le to varying tim e fram es (W HEP Final R eport 1986). The d ev elo p m en t o f each of the w o rk sh o p k its involved extensive research. The coordinators w ere in contact w ith o th e r w o m en 's health g ro u p s across C anada a n d w ould exchange resources including books a n d articles (bo th academic and lay). As w ell, th e re w as a n exchange o f new sletters am ong th e groups (the Vancouver W o m en 's H ea lth Collective, th e T oronto W om en 's H ea lth N etw ork, the W om en's H ea lth E ducation Project in N o v a Scotia, th e W innipeg W om en 's H ealth Clinic, the R egina W om en 's H ealth Collective) th ro u g h w hich fu rth e r inform ation an d know ledge of b o th national and reg iona l services w as sh a red and could be accessed th ro u g h th e W H EP office. A n ex tensive filing system docum enting Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 resources a n d inform ation on p e rtin en t w o m en 's health issues ran g in g from ch ildb irth ing options, effects o f pharm aceuticals, endom etriosis, m enopause and pa tien t righ ts to inform ation o n h o w to form s u p p o r t groups w as collected by the coord inato rs a n d m ade available th rough W HEP. These resources w ere su pp lem en ted by m aterials p u t o u t th rough th e H ealth P rom otion D irectorate, H ealth an d W elfare C anada a n d th e local D istric t H ealth U nits. T he W HEP w orkshop k its w ere detailed a n d com plete w ith extensive b ib liographies w hich enab led w o m en to access several choices (either inform ation o r service) on each specific topic. Further, if the in fo rm ation available w as n o t specific e n o u g h to w h a t w as needed , the W HEP coord inators w ou ld w o rk a t find ing fu r th e r inform ation un til th e ind iv idua l w om an could b e satisfied (In terv iew 1 W H EP C oord inator, W H IN B oard M ember). The coordinators and the com m unity representatives w orked enthusiastically to p ro v id e h e a lth inform ation to w o m e n in the ta rg e t com m unities a n d all w ere com m itted to the idea of im prov ing w om en 's h ea lth in no rthw estern O ntario . T h ro u g h the w orkshops, W HEP reached o v e r th ree thousand w om en in no rth w este rn O ntario (WHEP Final R epo rt 1986). O ver the three years, the g roup p ro d u ced a to ta l of nine w orkshop k its , an d perfo rm ed dozens of w ork sh o p s an d reg ional conferences in the targe t com m unities (W H EP Final R eport 1986). As well. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 W HEP coord inato rs held three w ell-a ttended train ing sessions^ for the vo lun teer representatives. One particu larly im portan t fea tu re of W HEP th a t se t it som ew hat a p a r t^ from other w o m en 's health collectives an d clinics in C an ad a ^ was its fund ing base (Interview 1 W H EP Coordinator, W H IN Board M em ber). In part, som e of the success of th is th ree year W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project was d u e to the significant seed dollars aw arded fro m the H ealth P rom otion Directorate, H ealth a n d W elfare C an ad a (Interview 1 an d 4 W HEP C oordinators, W H IN Board M em bers). This m oney p ro v id ed no t only the b u d g e t to em ploy fo u r part-tim e coordinators b u t it also enabled th e group to se t u p a n office; em ploy researchers periodically to develop the w o rk sh o p kits; p rin t num erous copies o f the w orkshop kits; h o ld regional conferences, facilitate tra in in g sessions for the com m unity representatives; reim burse the com m unity represen tatives for their trav e l costs to and from th e ir 21 The training sessions were called Shared Perspectives I, H, and IE. These sessions were each held over a weekend and guest speakers from other wom en's health organizations, clinics and collectives were brought in to speak about relevant topics (WHEP Final Report 1986). 22 W HEP w as not completely unique in the way that it evolved, or was structured partially around significant funding dollars from the Health Promotion Directorate, Health and Welfare Canada. In Nova Scotia, the Women's Health Education Network ran a similar project froml980-81 until 1983-84. Both projects emphasized women's health in rural or isolated regions of Canada (WHEP Correspondence Files). 23 ie. WHEP was structured, nm and funded differently from the Vancouver's Women's Hetdth Collective and the Winnipeg W omen's Health Clinic. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 hom e com m unities to T hunder Bay for m eetings an d training; a n d to purchase necessary office equ ipm ent for m ain ta in ing a regional office o n w om en 's health issues in n o rth w este rn O ntario . The benefits gained th rough th e funding h ad enorm ous effects on the sharing of in fo rm ation a n d education o f w om en 's health in the region. F u rther, the coordinators w e re able to gain num erous skills in learning how to m anage such a large scale project (In terv iew 4 WHEP C oord inators, W H IN Board M em bers). Yet, fo r th e w om en m anaging the W H E P project there w as a dow nside to the H ealth P rom otion D irectorate funding. W H E P w as highly accountable in that they w ere requ ired to provide fou r quarte rly rep o rts per year, m o n th ly budget statem ents a n d year end reports. Project evaluations had to be subm itted on a regu lar basis (Focus G roup December 15, 1999). T he first year of th e project w as m ainly spen t o n the p roduction , d issem ination a n d analysis of a m ajo r survey on w om en 's h ea lth needs in northw estern O n ta rio as la id ou t in the originéil proposal (Interview 8 W H E P C oordinator). E xecuting this survey took considerable tim e particularly because none of the coord inators h ired h ad m uch experience in survey construction, d istribution or analysis (In terv iew 1 W H EP C oordinator, W HIN Board M em ber; In terv iew 8 W HEP C oordinator). The adm in istra tive tasks an d the bureaucracy of w orking u n d e r the um brella of H ealth an d W elfare C anada consum ed a significant am ount of tim e a n d energy firom the fo u r coordinators (Interview 4 W H E P C oordinators, W H IN Board Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 M embers). This led to frustra tion on th e p a r t o f the coordinators as th ey could no t devote as m u ch tim e to the goal of ac tu a lly educa ting a n d p rov id ing inform ation to w om en in th e reg ion abou t w o m e n 's h ea lth concerns (Interview 1 W HEP C oordinator, W H IN B oard M ember). W HEP w a s able to secure fu n d in g fo r a n add itiona l ten m onths fo llow ing the th ree year dem onstra tion project w h ich carried the p ro ject th rough u n til June of 1986 (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinator, W H IN B oard M em ber; W HEP F inal R eport 1986). The fou r coord ina to rs stepped d o w n from their p a id positions w ith W HEP a n d a new coord ina to r w as h ired for th e te n m o n th extension project (In terview 1 W HEP C oord inator, WHEN Board M em ber). In part, she was h ired to finish up w ork on the w o rk sh o p k its and b eg in d is trib u tin g th em to the local regional libraries and public hea lth offices (In terv iew 1 W H EP C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber). F u rther, she w as responsible fo r w ritin g a n d subm itting th e final W HEP rep o rt (1986) to th e H ealth P rom otion D irectorate (In terview 12 W H EP Regional R epresentative, W H IN Board M ember). 2.6 THE W O M E N 'S HEALTH IN F O R M A T IO N NETW ORK fW H IN l; 1985-1992 W ithin th e W HEP tim e fram e, i t becam e ev id en t to the p a s t a n d presen t W HEP coordinators, the W HAG m em b ers an d the m any com m unity representatives th a t it w as necessary to con tinue provid ing resou rces and inform ation on h e a lth issues relevant to w o m e n in no rthw estern O ntario . Early on in the w om en 's h e a lth education project, th e W H A G B oard had filed a n application Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 requesting non-pro fit organization s ta tu s for a w om en 's health ne tw o rk (W HAG M inutes 1983). In pa rt, this decision evolved from the provincial a n d regional Strategies for Well-Being conferences as regional w om en w an ted to see a regional n e tw o rk fo r w o m en 's health . A lthough the W om en 's H ealth Education Project had m o re or less functioned o n their ow n w ith project decisions and runn ing th e project, i t w a s only fu n d ed as a three year dem onstra tion project. U ltim ately, th e W HAG B oard w as responsible to not only the H ealth P rom otion funders b u t to w om en liv in g in the region. In th is light, the w om en fro m W H A G also applied to receive th e ir charitable sta tu s registration. This process h a d d ragged on th ro u g h o u t the d u ra tio n of W H EP's existence b u t in the fall o f 1985, charitable status w as finally received (W HEP A nnual Report 1985-86). This recognition partly affirm ed for the W H EP coordinators and com m unity rep resen tatives th a t w ork ing on w om en 's health issues in th e region w as im portan t. H av in g ou tside recognition for the w ork th a t the w om en h a d been ded icated to for th e p a s t th ree years w as inspiring (Interview 1 W H EP Coordinator). T he W HEP w o m en also rea lized th a t their s tru c tu re w o u ld h ave to change w ith o u t baseline fu n d in g (W H IN B oard M eeting M inutes O ctober, 1985). Thus, by receiving charitab le, non-pro fit s ta tu s the w om en w ork ing on the health education project w e re in a position w here they could continue to w o rk as a w om en 's organization p ro v id in g w om en 's health inform ation in the reg io n (W HIN Board M eeting M inu tes O ctober, 1985). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 A lthough unsure of th e d irection they w o u ld take , th e w om en involved w an ted to continue the w o rk th ey w ere doing (In terv iew 1 W H EP C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber). U ltim ately , i t cam e dow n to th e fact th a t the w om en could n o t stop w hat they h ad sta rted . A s one in terview p a rtic ip an t explained w hen asked w h y W HIN h ad developed, " th e re w as a m om entum , a n d w e just cou ldn 't stop w h en the funding ended... w e h a d to keep g o in g ... fo r w om en" (Interview 1 W HEP Coordinator, W H IN B oard M em ber). O n October 19,1985 it w as decided tha t an active vo lun ta ry Board be form ed a n d a t the W HEP's final tra in in g session for com m unity representatives. Shared Perspectives: Future DirectiomF* conference held in T h u n d er Bay, the W om en's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (W HIN) w as b o m (WHEP A n n u a l R eport 1984-85). Their m ission was " to enable w o m en to take responsibility fo r the ir h ea lth and actively participate in their health care a n d healthy decisions" (taken from a W H IN P am phle t 1986). In part, fo rm in g the w om en 's health n e tw o rk m et one of the goals th a t the W om en's H ealth E duca tion Project h ad persevered tow ards; seeing the project become com pletely com m unity based (W H EP Final Report 1986). Im portantly , W H IN reso lved th a t th ey w ould function as a regionally based Board (W H IN Board M inutes O ctober, 1985). This w as no sm all task given the g rea t 24 This conference was held at the Avila Centre in Thunder Bay on October 18,19 and 20“',1985. It was the third and final training session of the W omen's Health Education Project, attended by the community representatives and coordinators involved with WHEP. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 distances b e tw een com m unities in th e N orthw est region. The tw e lv e Board m em bers w ere w o m en from across th e region an d all had previously b e en involved w ith w o m e n 's o rganizing a ro u n d h ea lth th rough either W HAG or W H E P (W H IN A nnual R e p o rt1984-85). These w o m e n w ere experienced a n d know ledgeable ab o u t w o m en 's h ea lth issues in n o rth w es te rn O ntario. They understood th e d iversity of the reg io n a n d w hat w o u ld w o rk to b ring w om en together to ta lk ab o u t health (In terv iew 1 W HEP C oord inato r, W H IN Board M ember). M oreover, they w ere en thusiastic a n d determ ined to continue providing health in fo rm ation a n d resources to w o m en w ho w ere liv in g in the isolated com m unities o f th e region. W H IN b eg an w ith o u t the sign ifican t seed dollars th a t th e W HEP project had possessed. H ow ever, beginning in th e fall o f 1985 th rough u n til 1992, the W om en's H ealth In fo rm ation N etw ork co n tinued to p u rsu e sim ilar goa ls to those of WHEP. In m any w ays, W H IN began w here W H EP h ad ended. W om en on the Board began to organize activities, w orkshops, conferences and m ain ta in regional netw orking (W HIN A nnual R eport 1984-85). T hey continued p ro d u c in g the quarterly new sletter - Health Network News th a t W H EP had b eg u n th ree years previously (Interview 1 W H E P C oordinator, W HEN B oard Member). A t the f irs t W H IN Board m eeting , h e ld in conjunction w ith its inauguration, W H IN a d d re ssed a considerable ran g e of organizational detzdls necessary to ru n n in g this p a rticu la r w om en 's n o n -p ro fit o rgan ization (WHEN Board M inutes Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 October, 1985). The Board m em bers decided to co n tinue w ork ing in a sim ilar fashion to th e W om en 's H ealth E ducation Project. T h is m ean t th a t the W om en's Hecilth In fo rm ation N etw ork B oard w ou ld function in a non-hierarchical m anner and tha t m em b ers w ou ld a im fo r consensus w hen m ak in g decisions regard ing all aspects of th e organization (W H IN M inutes B oard M inutes October 1985). Ironically, th e w o m e n also dec id ed th a t ffiey w o u ld h a v e fou r elected positions on the Board in c lu d in g a p residen t, vice-president, secre tary a n d treasurer (W HIN A nnual R ep o rt 1984-85). Because th e organization h a d no p a id staff (extension fund ing W H E P coord inator w as fin ish ing u p her position), the Board w ou ld be active an d b u sy in ru nn ing th e ne tw ork . It w as th ere fo re decided that all of the Board m em bers w o u ld have to m ak e a one year m in im u m com m itm ent to their role (W HIN A n n u a l R eport 1984-85). Finally, the m em bers decided to m aintain the W HEP office space in T hunder B ay (W H IN A nnual R ep o rt 1984-85). The ph ilo so p h y and goals of W H IN , as de te rm in ed a t the in itial consolidation o f the regional B oard w ere outlined as follow s; S ta tem en t of P h ilosophy A s a non-profit charitab le o rgan iza tion , W H IN p rom otes an aw areness of health issues s tem m ing from th e realities of w o m en 's lives in N o rth w este rn O ntario . T h ro u g h an evo lv ing netw ork of reg io n a l w o m en W H IN operates w ith a flexible a lte rn a tiv e structure , em phasiz ing decision m aking by consensus. U sing innovative and creative m ethods o f in fo rm ation shcuing, W HIN strives to be non -judgm en ta l an d su p p o rtiv e to w o m en tak ing responsib ility fo r their o w n well-being. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 Goals 1. To identify and resp o n d to the health needs of N o r th w e s te rn O n ta rio w o m e n th ro u g h th e developm en t of resources a n d the dissem ination of inform ation. 2. To foster an ongoing h e a lth inform ation ne tw ork am o n g w om en and g roups o f N orthw estern O ntario. 3. To advocate for positive changes in w om en 's health care services in N orthw estern O ntario. (Taken from the original W H IN Board M eeting files O ctober 1985). Developing th e ph ilosophy and goals w as in part, possible because of the w om en 's previous com m itm ent to W HEP and the tim e they had sp en t o n developing th e ir regional fram ew ork for w om en 's health. B oth know ledge and experience h ad been gained th ro u g h W HEP. Further, the new ly form ed Board se t o u t to w ork im m ediately and began to d raft a collective defin ition of health and core W H IN princip les [See A ppendix J]. The specifics o f h o w exactly the draft evolved fo r the netw ork 's definition of h ea lth an d principles a re unclear however, it is ev id en t that the w om en w ere w orking from the W orld H e a lth O rganizations b road v iew of health. T heir adoption of th is defin ition illustra tes th a t the w om en w ere conscious of a n analysis of the system ic na tu re of sexism , racism , classism a n d heterosexism , particu larly as these institu tions re la ted to narrow ly defining w om en 's health(W H IN A nnual R eport 1984-85). F u rthe r, the netw ork w om en saw the im portance of clearly outlining their goals of em pow ering a n d being accessible to all w om en; a n d supporting a n d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 encouraging w om en to take responsib ility for the ir o w n health (W H IN A nnual R eport 1984-85). W HIN defined health as. H ealth is the com plete state of physical, m en tal and social well being, influenced by the social, econom ic and political env ironm en t. In o rder to achieve th is state of w ell being, it is essen tia l to recognize th a t w om en m ust and will have to a tta in indiv idual and collective pow er over the defin ition of w ell being and o ver the life and health th a t are p a r t of th a t definition. (W H IN A nnual R eport 1984-85). The W H IN m em bers saw h ea lth as being m uch m o re th an the absence o f d isease and access to a hierarchical s tru c tu re d health care system . Rather, W H IN m em bers envisioned a holistic approach to health which w as ev id en t in the w o rk th a t they d id as W H EP, and w ould be se en in the projects th a t they w ould u n d ertak e and support. T he w om en established a t the beginning h o w they w ould w o rk w ith in a non-hierarchical structure an d h av e respect for the au to n o m y of any fu tu re g roups th a t they w o u ld w ork w ith (W H IN A nnual R eport1984-85). These principles w ou ld guide the w om en on their jo u rn ey of organizing a ro u n d w om en 's h ea lth in no rthw estern Ontario. A t th a t initial m eeting, th e Board also decided to app ly to have all o f the W HEP w orkshop kits copyrighted (W HIN Annual R e p o rt1984-85). In part, th is w as because W H IN saw the kits as a resource to be sold; a w ay in w hich th ey could m ake m oney to further the netw ork . The original W H EP w orkshop kits w e re being u p d a ted a n d edited w ith ad d itio n a l m odules be ing a d d ed , w hich u ltim ate ly resulted in a doubling of the n u m b er of kits available (W H IN A nnual R eport 1985- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 86). In all/ th ere w ere e ighteen k its th a t w ere u sed extensively in th e com m unities involved w ith W H IN [See A ppend ix 1]. The W H IN m em bers dec ided tha t they w o u ld apply fo r fu n d in g from the Secretary o f State to organize th e ir first conference. Healthy Herizons (W H IN A nnual R eport 1984-85). If the funds cou ld be found, i t w as determ ined th a t the conference p lann ing session w ould be h e ld in D ryden w ith the conference h ap p en in g in O ctober o f1986, one year from W H lN 's form ation (W H IN A nnual R ep o rt 1984-85). By hav ing th e o rgan izing session in one of the sm aller regional com m unities, the W H IN B oard w as able to act o n their com m itm ent to being in th e reg ion and opera ting as a regional Board. T his w as an im p o rtan t step for the w o m en involved in W H IN as m ost regional activities. Boards an d organizations o p e ra ted o u t of the largest cen tre in the region. T h u n d er Bay. Typically, th is m ean t th a t if y o u lived in one of th e sm aller com m unities a n d w ere involved w ith a reg ional organization, travel to a n d from T hunder Bay w as expected, a n d the norm (In terv iew 12 W HEP Regional Representative, W H IN Board M em ber). A ll of the w o m en th a t 1 in terv iew ed stressed how im p o rtan t i t w as th a t W H IN m ade the com m itm en t of being a reg ional Board. In particu lar, for the w om en it w as m eaningful as m ost of those involved w ere m others o f y o u n g children a n d though t it only fair, th a t all of the Board m em bers take tu rn s travelling to m eetings. O ver the course of W H lN 's firs t year, the w om en accom plished a n u m b er of things. First, th e Board held a to ta l of three full d ay B oard m eetings, tw o of w hich Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 to o k place in T hunder Bay, and one in D ry d en (W HIN A nnual R eport 1985-86). T hree editions of the Health Netivork Neios w ere sen t o u t to over tw o thousand w o m en (W HIN A nnual R eport 1985-86). H alf of the w orkshop k its w ere fully com pleted and d o n a ted to all o f the reg ional libraries (W HIN A nnual R eport 1985- 86). Finally, the Healthy Herizons^ conference, focussing on rep roduc tiv e health , w as p lanned , organized a n d h e ld in T hunder Bay, exactly one y ea r to the da te of the n e tw o rk 's inception (W H IN A nnual R eport 1985-86). M any o f these activities w ere accom plished w ith th e he lp of W HEP's part-tim e coordinator (In terview 1 W HEP C oord inator, W HIN B oard Member). Year tw o saw th e W H IN m em bers functioning w ith o u t the help of a paid coord inato r to deliver m ore w orkshops a n d regional n e tw o rk in g (W H IN A nnual R eport 1985-86). Talks w ere in itiated^ w ith o ther w om en 's h ea lth g roups across 25 Healthy Herizons, W H IN 's F irst A nnual H ealth Conference to o k place in O ctober o f 1986. The focus of th e conference w as o n w om en 's reproductive health issues a n d conference w orkshops included: B irth ing O ptions in N o rth w estem O ntario , S ta rting zmd M aintaining Self-Help G roups, N utrition, E xploring Life Changes: a w orkshop on m enopause a n d aging. B reast H ealth , DES Action, D em ystifying PM S, a n d Speaking O ut: Facilitation Skills Expanded. H igh ligh ted key note speakers w ere a m idw ife from Toronto a n d a w om an from th e N o rthern V ancouver W om en's Self-H elp N etw ork. F und ing w as p ro v id ed fo r by the Secretary of State (W H IN A nnual R eport 1986-87). 26 O ne of th e Board M em bers a ttended a conference sponsored by H ealth and W elfare C anada in G eneva Park, O ntario. F rom this consultation process, a g ro u p of w om en evolved w ho w ere in te rested in starting a C an ad ian w om en 's h ea lth netw ork. W H IN consu lted on, an d w as involved w ith th is process th ro u g h o u t 1986-87. T he C anad ian W om en 's H ealth N etw ork even tually form ed in 1989 (Tudiver 1994). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 C anada ab o u t the possibility o f sta rtin g a national w o m en 's health netw ork (H ealth N etw ork N ew s N ew sletter S um m er 1986). H ow ever, regional w om en 's health rem ained th e top priority a n d th ree m ini-conferences^ w ere planned and he ld in the sp ring of 1987 (W HIN A nnual R eport 1987-88). A second Healthy Herizons conference, focussing on the im pact of technology o n w om en 's health, w as he ld in the fall, once again in T hunder Bay (W H IN Annual R ep o rt 1987-88). The success of bo th the m ini-conferences a n d the regional conference w as overw helm ing. O ne interview partic ipan t expléiined to m e th a t up until recently , w om en con tinued to stop her o n the street to ta lk ab o u t how the m ini-conference in N ipigon h ad changed their lives b y encouraging the w om en to be responsible fo r their health, be assertive and ask questions in their encounters w ith health care professionals an d ultim ately , had g iven the w om en a h igher level of self-confidence generally (Interview 5 W H IN Board M em ber). The success of the w orkshops a n d the conferences cannot be underestim ated w hen a ttem pting to u n d ers tan d h o w regional w o m en 's lives w ere influenced by W HIN. W om en learned abou t the ir ow n health, their conununities, and the reg ion by listening a n d talking w ith one another. They lea rn ed th a t the problem s and isolation they felt to be their o w n ind iv idual difficulties w ere shared, and th a t m any of the w om en w ho lived close to them experienced sim ilar situations (H ealth 27 The m ini-conferences took p lace in N ipigon, Kenora a n d M arathon (W HIN A nnual R eport 1986-87). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 N etw ork N ew s N ew sletter W in te r1987). T hrough this sh a rin g a n d learning w om en w ere able to u n d e rs tan d th a t w o m e n 's health issues w ere a collective problem . The w o m en involved w ith th e B oard w ere refin ing th e ir skills w ith consensus fo r decision m ak in g an d the n e tw o rk w as becom ing stro n g ly independen t (W H IN A nnual R eport 1987-88). B oard developm ent began in y e a r tw o, and long ran g e p lanning w as also done (W H IN A nnual R eport 1987-88). Com m ittees w ere established to oversee m em bership , w orkshop p ro d u c tio n a n d fundraising (W H IN A nnual R eport 1987-88). The diversification of the B oard o n com m ittee w o rk ensured tha t a ll reg ional m em bers w e re able to con tribu te in w ays w ith w hich they felt com fortable an d skilled. As well, th rough fu n d in g from E m ploym ent D evelopm ent a n d the O ntario W om en 's D irectorate, th ree s tu d en ts were h ired to w o rk on srnnm er contracts (H ealth N etw ork N ew s N ew sle tte r Spring & Sum m er 1988). In this sam e year, W H IN b e g an to collaborate w ith th e Red Lake W om en 's Inform ation G ro u p on the p ro d u c tio n of a book abou t g iv in g b irth aw ay firom hom e. F und ing for th is book. Long Distance Delivery: A Guide to Travelling Away from Home to Give Birth^^, w as applied for, a n d received from the H ea lth P rom otion D irectorate (W HIN A nnual R eport 1987-88). C oord inators w ork ing o u t o f tw o locations. Red 28 The book was published in Rexdale, Ontario: Hehnsman Press, 1990. Requests for this book were significant and to this day, requests for the book continue to come in from across North America. An article about the issue of birthing aw ay from home was published in Healthsharing, a Canadian wom en's health journal entitled. Long Distance Delivery by the coordinators. Holly Rupert and Dianne Lai in the winter edition, 1988. Reproduced with permission ot the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 L ake an d T hunder Bay w ith a distance o f six h u n d re d kilom etres be tw een them , w ere h ired to resea rch a n d w rite the book (Interview 7 W H IN B oard M ember, W H IN Project W orker; In terv iew 10 W H IN Project W orker). T he process involved severa l focus g roups in th e region w here w om en sh a red their experiences, such as th e ho rro rs of h av in g to leave their com m unities an d hom es to trave l while in lab o u r to a larger cen tre in o rder to de liver th e ir babies. A regionzd survey of w o m en and health care p roviders; an d w orkshops to p repare w o m en w ho w ould b e travelling aw ay fro m ho m e to give b irth w as conducted (W HIN A nnual Report 1987-88). This project w a s im p o rtan t as it w as the first in itiative in w hich W HIN collaborated d irectly w ith ano ther reg ional w om en 's group. The book took three years to com plete w ith several drafts necessary before p rin ting (W H IN Annual R ep o rt 1989-90). T h ro u g h th e process th e w o m en involved lea rn ed a num ber of skills b o th in the ac tual involvem ent of w ritin g a n d ed iting a book o f this nature as w ell as the process o f w o rk in g collectively together an d a t a d istance (Interview 10 W H IN Project W orker; In terv iew 1 W H EP C oord inato r, W H IN B oard Member). W hen the book w as finally published in A u g u s t of 1990, over tw o th o u san d copies w ere d istribu ted to reg io n a l hospitals, centres, h ea lth clinics, an d to w om en in the iso lated com m unities o f n o rth w estem O ntario (W H IN A nnual R eport 1989-90). In year three o f W H IN the w om en invo lved w ere con tinu ing to w ork w ith g rea t intensity. Several sm aller groups (self-help, lobby, inform ation, support) had Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 g ro w n o u t of W H IN 's regional ne tw orking , all sharing the com m on th re a d of p ro v id in g inform ation and resources to regional w om en ab o u t various w om en 's health needs (Interview 2 W HEP C oordinators, W HIN B oard M em bers). T he project on out-of-tow n-b irth continued a n d funding w as received from the O ntario W om en 's D irectorate and the Secretary of State to p u t together w hat w ou ld be the final w o rkshop k it. What Can I Do: M aking Changes in Health Care (W H IN A nnual R ep o rt1987-88). This k it encouraged w om en to sit on their local hospital boards, the D istrict H ealth Council, and lobby the governm ent for specific health care changes (In terview 3 W H EP Coordinator, W H IN Project W orker). In all, the w om en w orked efficiently over the distance an d th e k it w as ready for d istribu tion in the sp rin g of 1989 (W H IN A nnual Report 1989-90). As one of the orig inal W HEP coord inators exp lained to m e, "w om en d id it, th ey w en t out and they g o t involved w ith various boards in the region" (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber). N earing the end of 1989, th e W H IN Board rea lized th a t the past coup le of years h a d been extrem ely busy w o rk in g on the tw o m ajor projects, the publication of Long Distance Delivery and the W hat Can I Do k it an d th e num erous o th er sm aller projects includ ing the new sletter, w orkshops and conferences (Interview 2 W H EP C oordinators, W H IN Board M em bers). They realized th a t very little tim e h ad been spen t o n Board D evelopm ent (W H IN A nnual R eport 1989-90). The core of the regional o rgan ization had been neg lected and long term p lann ing had fallen to the w ayside. A proposal w as su bm itted to the Secretary of State to fu n d Board Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 Women must get involved politicaily to bring about changes inhealth fie id Women iniist lake owiiersltip aiuJ gel as a breakdown of key p layers in the there is enough m ental hciltl care I llieir feel into politics if they want to see health ca re system. would love to see a w om en’: health clianges in the health care system, say D octors need to p lay a k r / role in clinic." m em bers of the Thunder Bay U islricl health promotion and education and not Coalition m em ber Celia fi’i’ bs said Health Coalition. just as healers, said participants, add­ there is a "definite shortage " • I health "We liaye.lo m ake a lot more waves ing th a t nurses hive been m ore effec­ professionals in the North an a "big than w hat w ç.are,” said Prue Morton of tive in teaching. Morion sa id Thunder shortage” of hcm em akers wii tend to the coaiitionli ‘ ' Bay needs a community health centre thé elderly, Mortoré-wâs o n e 'of.several p artic i­ for Uiose who don't use doctors. The reason to-- that is bee? ise they pants whdtaltended a NbrUiwestern On­ Societal changes in a ttitude and edu­ are poorly paid, " she said. i tario Wôçlen’s Health'(information.Net­ cation pertaining to health such as sch i­ work w orkslibp T uesday night. The zophrenia need to be addressed. Coali­ There should be more inter- st in n a ­ workshopi'foôused on the.structures Uiat tion p residen t Helen SchuinacI ' » said tive health care and wholistic i-iedicine. exist in line diealth care system in the m ore em phasis should be placed on p re­ said Naomi A botissaw ay. Natural hy­ North as they pertain to women. ■' ventive medicine and less on relying on giene is another health can* alternative. Sponsored i n ’conjiioclion with the Uie prac titioner (ora cure. Morton added the concept «f gp id health HealUi coalition,-the/workshop titled, “ We have to spend m ore lim e on w hat should be term ed tlie “ ilhiess system " . What Can*! Do? Making Clianges In the we should be doing to stay healtiiy. It's as opposed to tlic “ healthsyste-n." I iicailh Care.Systeni, also included a dis­ ju st com m on sense, " she sa id. ’ / i cussion aiid analysis oTbarriers as well ' P r o j e c t CO o r d i n a t n r s . • » I * » . * • :,O ne participan t scoffed, “ I don’t tliink p g Ü m and p B H i M W r a i d their goal is to produce a resource kit with vi­ deo component to enable womrn to acti­ vely particpate in policy and decision­ making in health care organizations in N.W.O. Special em phasis will be placed on district health councils, hospital and agency boardr, U'.e m inistry of health and non-profit 'dvocacy gruups.-Target distribution date is 1989. Figure F T aken from the Chronicle Tournai (T hunder Bay) T hursday , June 2,1988 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction profiibited witfiout permission. 73 D evelopm ent in D ecem ber of 1989 a n d fund ing w as received in February o f 1990 (W H IN A nnual R epo rt 1989-90). Through B oard developm ent, the goals of the WHEN B oard were to genera te b o th short an d long-range p lann ing (th ree to five years) ; develop financial stra teg ies fo r increasing th e ir self-sufficiency; a n d evaluate the o rgan iza tion to date (W H IN A nnual Report 1989-90). W ith successful funding, W H IN w as able to h ire a p a rt- tim e coordinator a n d three Board developm en t p lanning sessions were p lanned an d com pleted th ro u g h o u t the year (W H IN A nnual R eport 1989-90). The sessions w ere h e ld th roughou t th e reg ion includ ing one in T hunder Bay, one in Kenora a n d the final m eeting w as he ld a t Q uetico C en tre , w est of T h u n d er Bay (W HIN A rm ual R eport 1989-90). These sessions w ere valuable to the W HIN m em bers as th e w om en w h o h a d been involved for m any years w ere able to look back a n d reflect on w here th ey h a d b egun w o m e n 's organ izing a ro u n d health , their accom plishm ents and from tha t, decide on w here th ey w ould like to see W H IN go in the fu tu re . This p lann ing led the Board to th in k in g about funds, a n d h o w W HIN cou ld su s ta in itself as a reg iona l non-profit o rgan ization (W HIN A nnual R eport 1989-90). U ntil this point, W H IN h a d relied on pro ject fund ing for all o f the w ork that they h a d accom plished (Focus G ro u p Decem ber 15,1999). This h a d been very difficult as i t m ean t th a t v a rio u s fu n d in g proposals w ere constantly be ing p u rsued a n d often, decisions for projects w o u ld evolve o u t of w h a t fund ing w as available ra th e r frian self-defined n eed s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 (Focus G roup D ecem ber 15,1999). The W H IN m em bers felt that there n eeded to be e ith e r base-line fund ing , w hich d id n o t seem available, or a de ta iled fundraising p la n th a t w ould p ro v id e the financial resources needed to ru n th e regional o rgan ization (W HIN A nnual R eport 1989-90). I t w as a t this tim e th a t the W H IN B oard decided to subm it a p roposa l to the T rillium F oundation (W H IN A nnual R ep o rt 1989-90). The success w ith Trillium fu n d in g enabled W H IN to m ove to a la rg er office space in Thunder Bay, purchase office equipm ent, an d h ire a part-tim e coord ina to r (W H IN Annual R e p o rt1989-90). T he T rillium funds p ro v id ed base-line fu n d in g for a tw o year p e rio d (1990-92), d u r in g w hich tim e th e W H IN Board w as to w ork tow ards financial self-sufficiency (W H IN A nnual R eport 1989-90). In o rd e r to achieve self-sufficiency, W HIN m em bers undertook to learn fu n d ra is in g techniques and fu rth e r Board developm ent. M ost o f the w om en in te rv iew ed discussed how hopefu l they w ere th a t th is enorm ous step w ou ld secure W H IN 's position as a regionally-based w o m en 's health ne tw ork (Interview 12 W H EP Regional Representative, W HIN Bocird M ember). H ow ever, in m any of th e in terview s the w om en sh a red w ith me h o w they felt th a t in th e end , the T rillium fu n d in g eventually led to the dem ise of W H IN . The final project th a t W H IN w as to com plete began in 1990. T he Body Image Project addressed the prob lem s of w om en 's , particu larly young w om en 's obsession w ith bo d y image, including eating d iso rders a n d self-esteem (WHIN A n n u a l R eport Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 1989-90). The project was jo in tly fu n d ed by the O ntario W om en 's D irectorate, the M in istry of N orthern D evelopm ent a n d Mines, The O n ta rio Arts Council, The C an ad a C ouncil, and the Secretary o f State (W HIN A rm ual Report 1990-91). A p lay w rig h t w as hired to w rite a n d direct a play” focussing on the h ea lth consequences of negative bo d y im age. A w orkshop a n d resources w ere com piled over th e nex t tw o years, on ra is in g the aw areness for th e n eed tha t young w om en develop a positive and healthy self im age. C om pleted in 1991, the p lay to u red across no rth w estem O ntario d u r in g the sp ring of 1992, v isiting all of the reg ional h ig h schools (H ealth N etw ork N ew s N ew sletter January-Jim e, Volume 21). D uring this period, W H IN u n d e rw en t severed m ajo r changes. T hrough th em all, th e m em bers rem ained com m itted to their o rig inal goal of p ro v id in g in fo rm ation an d resources to w o m en in northw estem O ntario . They p rov ided local w o m e n 's health resources a n d su p p o rt for thousands o f w om en living in the N o rth w est reg ion of the province; a n d they advocated fo r changes to the health care sy stem a t the m unicipal, p rov incia l^ a n d federal levels^'. 29 The play was written by Thunder Bay writer, Eleanor Albanese and first titled The Crane Dance. Since that time, it has been performed across Canada and is now titled The Body Image Project. 30 A n exam ple of their advocating efforts a t the provincial level took place in Ignace w here they h ad the w ater trea tm en t centre updated by th e M unicipal G overnm en t a t the request of the M in istry of the E nv ironm en t because of th e p o o r w a te r quality in their com m unity . 31 O ne na tiona l endeavour w hich W H IN w orked on w as partic ipa ting in a na tional Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 O ne exam ple of th e ir advocating efforts inc luded w ork ing w ith a sm all grassroots g ro u p in Schreiber to take on the m un ic ipal governm ent, a large m in ing com pany a n d th e C an ad ian Pacific R ailw ay (CPR) (N orthw estem O n ta rio 's W om en's H e a lth Inform ation Project 1989). A s de ta iled in the "W hat C an I Do" video, w om en liv ing in th e com m unity w ere co n cem ed because the gold m in ing com pany w as h o u sin g its d u m p in g g rounds in th e ir com m unities d o w n to w n area, close to the ra ilro ad tracks, a n d using uncovered trucks to re-locate the w aste from the m ining site. The heavy arsenic com position in the m in ing w aste w as causing env ironm ental deform ities in the su rround ing p la n t an d fish life. They believed th a t the w aste w a s harm fu l to how ever, they could n o t g e t anyone in a position of p o w er to listen to th e ir concerns. T h rough petitions, a n d h u n d re d s of letters and te lephone calls to the T o w n Council, the M inistry of E nvirorunent, th e M inistry of H ealth , the m in ing com pany a n d the CPR C om pany they w ere , a fte r m uch fru stra tion an d expense, able to have by-law s changed an d a p ro toco l established w hereby the dum p in g g ro u n d s w ere m oved outside of the to w n , a n d the trucks carry ing the w aste had to be covered w h en transporting the d a n g ero u s goods. W H IN 's accom plishm ents w ere im m ense for w ork ing w ith o u t baseline fund ing an d re ly ing o n vo lun teers to accom plish the goals of the netw ork . The coalition su p p o rtin g the C anad ian w om en 's g ro u p w h ich w rote a n d perfo rm ed Side Effects, a p la y abou t w om en an d pharm aceuticals (Interview 4 W HEP Coorchnator, W H IN B oard M em ber). This p lay to u re d in 1985-86 a n d has since been perfo rm ed w orld -w ide (Tudiver 1986). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 actual daily w o rk involved in b o th p rov id ing in fo rm ation and resources to w om en in the region, the runn ing of a n office in T hunder Bay, a n d later on in K enora, and th e w ritin g o f the various fu n d in g proposals w as accom plished b y w om en vo lun teers from around the reg ion (Interview 2 W H IN Board M em bers). W H IN 's dem ise w as n o t a b ru p t bu t a lo n g d raw n ou t p rocess of Board m em bers recognizing th a t the en o rm ous w ork load of W H IN w as physically and m en tally exhausting (Interview 2 W H IN B oard M em bers). In sho rt, the few ded ica ted B oard m em bers w ere b u rn t o u t (Focus G ro u p Decem ber 15,1999). As the p ro jec t on Body Im age w as concluding , W H IN 's B oard m em bersh ip w as also w an ing . Typically, it w as exp la ined th a t two to th ree n ew Board m em bers w ould be rec ru ited th rough w ork o n a project (In terview 2 W H IN B oard M embers). H ow ever, w ith the Body Im age Project, no n ew B oard M em bers w e re recru ited (In terv iew 12 W H IN Board M em ber). F undraising efforts had been for the m ost p a rt, unsuccessful in term s of self-sufficiency (In terv iew 2 W HIN B oard M embers; In terv iew 12 W HIN Board M em ber). Because there w as little m oney, com m unication efforts w ith w o m en in the reg io n h a d dw indled . The Board m em bers w h o w ere living in T h u n d er Bay, v o lu n tee rin g their tim e in th e W HIN office eventually had to find p a id w ork w hich left less tim e to v o lu n te e r w ith W H IN (In terv iew 2 W HIN Board M em bers). In p a rt, th e taking o n o f p a id w ork h a p p en e d as th e w om en's sm all ch ild ren reached school age. P rior to th is, m any of th e w om en h a d been 'stay-at-hom e' m om s, raising th e ir ch ild ren an d w o rk in g w ith Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 the W H EP an d W HIN projects (Interview 2 W H IN B oard M embers). T here w as never an official Board m ee ting to decide tha t the efforts organizing a ro u n d w om en 's h ea lth w ould en d (Interview 12 W HIN Board M ember). R ather, the few m em bers liv ing in T h u n d er Bay sough t legal advice as to w hat to d o w ith the non-profit w om en 's organization (Interview 2 W H IN Board M embers). It w as suggested to th e m that they le t th e w om en 's organization d ie ou t slowly o n its o w n (Interview 2 WHEN Board M em bers). As difficult a decision as it was, the w om en decided to le t W H IN dissolve. T he rem aining W HIN w om en m anaged to g e t o u t of their leased office space, an d d o n a te the office equ ipm ent and supplies to o th er non-profit o rganizations in the c ity (Interview 2 W H IN Board Members). As w as m entioned earlier, it w as suggested b y som e of the participants tha t the T rillium fu n d in g had led to W H IN 's demise. In p a rt, this funding had b ro u g h t about m ajor changes in the w o m en 's organization as th e w om en 's efforts tu rn ed from their p rim ary concern of w o m en 's health o rgan iz ing to fundraising as a non­ profit o rgan ization (Interview 12 W H IN Board M em ber). Because there w ere so few volunteers a t the poin t of receiv ing the funding, th e energy required to actively engage in fundraising consum ed the w om en 's tim e (Interview 2 W HIN Board Members). T his w as d ishearten ing as they w ere n o longer engaged in w h a t they w anted to be d o in g - sharing w o m en 's health in fo rm ation in the region (Interview 2 W HIN B oard M embers). H ow ever, the w om en believed th a t if they could leam Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 h o w to be financially self-sufficient, th ey w o u ld be able to once again , resum e their efforts o rgan iz ing a ro u n d regional w o m en 's health issues (Interview 12 W HIN Board M em ber). Yet, in th e process of a ttem p ting to gain financial self-sufficiency th rough fundraising, acqu iring p a id w ork, a n d hav ing no m oney to conununicate w ith w om en in the reg ion , W H IN eventually dissolved. For th o se w o m en w ho w ere still actively involved w ith W H IN in th e su m m er and fall o f 1992, the interviews b rough t up sh a red feelings of sadness an d defeat (In terv iew 2 W HIN Board M embers; In terv iew 12 W H IN Board M em ber; Interview 13 WHEN Board Member). H ow ever, these w om en also shared a sense of accom plishm ent a n d joy in reflecting back over th e ir experiences w ith w o m e n 's organizing in no rthw estem O ntario (Interview 2 W H IN Board M embers; In terv iew 12 W HIN B oard M em ber; Interview 13 W H IN B oard M em ber). 2.7 SUM M ARY The s tre n g th of w om en 's h ea lth organizing efforts in n o rthw estem O ntario w as found in th e com m itm ent of severa l w om en to p ro v id in g inform ation and resources on w o m en 's health needs in the region. The W o m en an d H ealth Sub­ comm ittee, W H A G , W H EP and W H IN reached th o u san d s of w om en and w ere instrum ental in p ro v id in g consciousness raising, health ed u ca tio n , inform ation and resources to w om en in the isolated com m unities of the n o rth w e s te m O ntario region. M oreover, the h isto ry of these w o m en h ea lth advocates a n d w om en 's groups Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 dem onstrates h o w w om en 's grassroots o rgan iz ing encouraged, in sp ired an d em pow ered o rd in a ry w om en to successfully take u p the roles of com m unity leader a n d w om en 's h e a lth activist, both o f w h ich p rom o ted social change in th e areas of health an d healthy com m unities. The w o m en 's h ea lth issues th a t w e re being addressed b y the w om en living in n o rth w estem O n ta rio w ere sim ilar to th e w om en 's health issues be ing taken u p by w om en h ea lth advocates across the co u n try . A ttention to rep roduc tive choices for childbirth, contracep tion , and access to abortion , stress, nu trition , m enopause, a n d changing the clinical relationship b e tw een w om en and their physicians w ere critical issues for w o m e n across C anada a n d the U nited States. H ow ever, there w as specific a tten tion a n d focus on the N o rth w est reg ion and how liv ing in this particu lar location in fluenced the in te rp re ta tio n an d health experiences o f regional w om en. The reg iona l flare of the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee, W HAG, W H EP and W H IN dem onstrates how th e location w here one lives influences perceptions of h ea lth and the organizing activ ities th a t are possible w ith in a specific context. In C hap ter T hree, issues a ro u n d struc tu re , process and the tensions su rro u n d in g these them es w ill be add ressed . Selected interview an d focus group quo tes w ill be u se d to illustrate the politics of the w om en 's efforts includ ing how the w om en organ ized them selves. I w ill exam ine the w om en's percep tions of their efforts, their iden tified health issues an d th e tensions w hich arose over the course Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 of their organizing . In part, this w ill dem onstra te th a t there w ere specific features of their efforts w hich w ere explicitly fem inist a n d th a t a fem inist identity , either collective o r ind iv idua l is fram ed by the social con tex t (including the geographic location), in w hich it is negotiated. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 CHAPTER 3 : THE POLITICS OF W O M EN'S HEALTH ORGANIZING TN NORTHW ESTERN ONTARIO 3.1 INTRO DUCTIO N The fem in ist m ovem ent is n o t coherent, s ingu lar or unified. I t does not a n d canno t p u rsu e a single strategic course. I t is a m ulti-faceted m obilization th a t has taken d ifferent form s a t d ifferent tim es, in d ifferent areas of the coun try , in different socioeconom ic a n d political contexts a n d am ong w om en o f d iverse racial, ethnic, class a n d age groups (M arx, Ferree a n d Yancey M artin 1995). This chapter exam ines the resp o n d en ts com m ents a n d reflections on the politics of n o rthw estem O ntario w om en 's organizing . T he no tion of politics here is u n d ers to o d in the p e rio d of second-w ave fem inism 's em phasis on, 'th e personal as political'. H eavily critiqued for being a tim e period w here the w om en's m ovem en t p redom inan tly relied o n a fem in ist essentialism g ro u n d ed in the perspectives of w hite, m iddle-class w om en; the politics o f grassroots organizing w ere ro o ted in a non-patriarchal a ltem ative m odel, w ith the p o pu lar ideal of consensus as a m odel fo r decision-m aking a n d participatory w ork practices w hereby w om en took tu rn s job-sharing the ro les and responsibilities necessary to the functioning of the g ro u p (Ristock 1991). A s stated by A ckelsberg (1988), "Political life is the com m unity , a n d politics is a tten d in g to the qua lity of life in households, com m unities a n d w orkplaces" (308). In exam ining this p a rticu la r social h isto ry o f w om en 's o rgan izing efforts in no rth w estem O ntario , the politics d iscussed include: h o w the w om en w ere Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 organizing (structu re an d process); w hat issues w ere being iden tified as w om en 's health issues; w h y these p a rticu la r health issues w ere germ ane to th e w om en; and th e tensions w h ich w ere in h eren t w ith in th is po litica l m ovem ent. I beg in b y ou tlin ing B eagan 's (1996) conceptual m odel in an effort to dem onstra te th e u tility of a postm odern ap p ro ach to praxis and iden tity . W hat then follow s is a descrip tion o f severed of the core them es linked to th e politics of w om en 's o rganizing w hich illustra te how day -to -day processes sh a p ed the w om en's notions of collective identity . O ne them e w h ic h surfaced rep ea ted ly in the interview s w as th e con trad ic to ry notions of fem in is t an d a ltem ative struc tu re and process, particu larly th e m odel of consensus decision-m aking p o p u la r a t th is time. The w om en invo lved w an ted to use a 'fem in ist m odel' or a ltem ativ e structure how ever, they d id n o t necessarily share a collective u n d ers tan d in g of w h a t that m eant. Because th e g roups w ere n o t static b u t evo lv ing over the tw e lve y ear period th e ir defin itions o f stru c tu re a n d process w ere in constan t flux. In pa rt, tensions am ong the w o m e n arose as the g ro u p s experienced contradictions in th e ir identity a n d a lack o f clarity ab o u t a ltem ative o rganizational and process re la ted goals. In th is ch ap ter I w ill elaborate on the them e of a collective u n d e rs tan d in g of iden tities p a y in g specific a tten tio n to how these affected the w o m en 's efforts to define and p ractise the ir a ltem ative structure a n d process. U n d erstan d in g the com plex social aspects o f the no rthw est reg io n including issues of distance, difficulties in com m unication a n d the isolation faced by m any of the w om en Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 involved as w ell a s th e w om en 's m u ltip le and shifting id en tities is critical to th is analysis of o rgan iz ing as a regional w o m en 's issue. In m a n y o f the interviews, the im portance of u n d e rs tan d in g how th e region influenced o rgan iz ing efforts w as p resen ted as c en tra l to a social h is to ry of w om en 's o rgan iz ing . Further, th e w om en 's identities, b o th indiv idual a n d collective sh ap ed the p rax is of the groups. Issues of pow er re la tin g to identity politics w ere im plicitly cen tra l in the discourses a ro u n d organizing, a ltem ative s truc tu re , process an d tensions. M any of th e tensions and d iffic u ltie s which arose a re lin k ed w ith notions o f p o w er and 'pow erlessness '. Conflicting understand ings o f p o w e r w ith in the g ro u p of the w om en invo lved , o r as the g ro u p of w om en w o rk e d to w ard s change in a la rger context are in teg ra l to this case s tu d y . Further, fu n d in g issues became m ore a n d m ore com plex as th e groups evolved, a n d particu larly w ith W H IN , lack of core fu n d in g became o n e of th e m ain sources o f tension experienced by the wom en. By deta iling the w o m en 's experiences as relayed th rough th e in terv iew s, the m any facets of the politics o f w om en 's o rgan iz ing around h ea lth in th e northw est reg ion w ill be revealed. 3.2 POLITICS: PRAXIS VS. IDENTITY Beagan (1996) h a s outlined th ree approaches she fo u n d usefu l in her 1993 case s tudy exam ination of identity a n d praxis w ith in th e N o v a Scotia A dvisory Council on the S ta tus o f W omen. B eagan w as interested in an a ly sin g the processes w om en 's g roups u se to bu ild collective fem inist identity . She suggests that som e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 w om en 's g roups begin w ith a shared iden tity w hen undertak ing the practice of their w ork (75). T his shared identity is unifying. However, it is problem atic in that differences (identity an d pow er) am o n g w om en are often overlooked to present cohesiveness am ong the group. B eagan argues tha t in th is type of politics, "fem inism becom es a m atter of be ing ra ther than do ing" (78). This type of organizing is characteristic of the early days of the second-w ave fem inist m ovem ent w h en the no tion of 's is terhood ' w as preem inent. Second, she notes that som e w om en 's groups focus on diversity and difference as their starting po in t fo r praxis (75). This a p p ro a c h to w om en's o rganizing efforts took ho ld w ith w o m en 's groups du ring th e late 1980s and early 1990's. It evolved o u t of criticisms fro m w om en of colour, lesb ian women, and d isabled w om en th a t differences w ere n o t being adequate ly addressed by the largely w hite, m iddleclass m ovem ent (79). For wom en's g ro u p s, the move to centre difference an d pow er accom panying the m ultiple subject positions w om en occupy w as of critical im portance as it sh ifted the discourses of the fem in ist m ovem ent to be attentive to w om en 's m ultiple social locations. H ow ever, th is approach is no t w ithou t tensions as indiv idual w om en, in the process, o ften becom e labelled by their (typically) m ost oppressed social location thus, deny ing the ir commonalities w ith other w om en. Finally, Beagan contends ffiat i t is useful to exam ine w o m en 's praxis from a fem inist postm odern stance (1996: 76). She argues that th is a llow s the first tw o Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 approaches can be m erged in a m eaningful w ay because postm odern ism accounts for a flu id ity of 'm ultip le a n d fragm ented, constan tly shifting, a n d in ternally contrad ictory ' identities (80). F urther, it perm its th e possibility of u n d e rs tan d in g how as individuals, w e can experience 'oppression a n d privilege a t the sam e tim e' (81). A postm odernism a p p ro ach to understand ing iden tity is valuable because it allows fo r attention to the contradictions w om en experience in their p rax is - or o rganizing efforts. 3.3 ORGANIZING EFFORTS: STRUCTURE A N D PROCESS W om en w ere fin d in g their voice a t th a t time... it probably began in the sixties... w h e n people w ere beginning to accep t th a t there w ere inequalities gender wise... I d o n 't k n o w how to p u t it b e tte r b u t the time w as right. I m ean... I th ink the m oney w as im portant... b u t it p robab ly w o u ld have h ap p en ed w ith o u t the money. I t m ig h t have taken longer o r few er people m ight have b een involved... b u t it w ou ld have happened (In terv iew 9 W HIN Board M em ber, W HIN Project W orker). To situate m y analysis of h o w the w om en of no rth w estem O ntario s tru c tu red and o rgan ized them selves in the various w om en 's h ea lth organizations it is necessary to begin in 1980, w ith the W om en and H ea lth Sub-com m ittee a n d then discuss th e subsequent genesis of WHAG, W H EP a n d W HIN. In p a rt, th is is im portan t because it allow s d ie read er to u n d ers tan d h o w ideas abou t fem inism , fem inist structure, collectivity a n d consensus w ere lea rn ed an d adap ted to m ee t the evolving needs of n o rth w estem O ntario w om en 's health groups. Because each group ex isted w ithin a specific regional and socio-cultural tim e frame, concepts of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 fem inist s tru c tu re an d organizing varied according to the d iv erse regional identities and needs o f d ie w om en involved. W H A G , W HEP and W H IN assum ed varying d eg rees of a sim ilar n o n - traditional s truc tu re . In part, die evo lu tion of th is altem ative non-hierarchical fo rm came ab o u t th ro u g h a process of experiential learning of h o w to organize and w o rk together. A com m on goal w hich un ified the collective id en tity of the groups w as sharing h ea lth inform ation to em pow er w om en to take responsib ility for their o w n health by lea rn in g abou t choices reg a rd in g health care and b o d y issues. The goal of learning to w o rk w ith an a ltem ative struc tu re based on collectivity and consensus had been iden tified early on in the developm ent of the w o m en 's health group w h e n the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m idee h ad decided to w o rk w ith an explicit fem inist o rien ta tion (W omen a n d H ealth Subcom mittee M inu tes Septem ber 21, 1980). The significance of this decision is im portan t as it m arks h o w w om en 's h ea lth organizing efforts in northw estem O ntario becam e roo ted in u s in g an altem ative structure a n d process. In part, th is w as carried over from th e w om en 's efforts organizing a n d w ork ing as fem inist collectives on the Northern Woman Journal a n d in the W om en 's C entre in T hunder Bay. The decision for th e W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee to w ork w ith an a ltem ative orientation and s tru c tu re grew o u t of th e values of th e larger northw estem O ntario w om en 's m ovem ent. The decision to w ork w ith a n a ltem ative form and p rocess w as characteristic of grassroots w om en 's groups a t th is tim e. W om en focussed o n using alternative Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 structures because th ey e ither d id n o t h av e experience w ith traditional organizations or the experiences they had w ere largely negative (A dam son, Briskin a n d McPhail 2000). Radical fem inists h ad developed a critique o f earlier social m ovem ent organ izations w hich contended th a t traditional o rgan izations were patriarchal an d d e p riv e d w o m e n of leadership roles and oppo rtun ities (Vickers 1991). As noted by R istock (1991) the choice to u se altem ative, n o n h ierarchal forms w as also influenced b y w o m en 's often negative experiences w ith trad itional m odels o f organizing an d organ izations, where w om en often w o rk ed in positions w ith m inim al pow er a n d influence in decision-m aking (Adam son, B riskin and McPhail 2000). By choosing to w o rk in egalitarian relationships w ith consensus decision­ m ak ing each w om an involved could exercise equal pow er in decision-m aking for the g roup (Ristock 1991; V ickers 1991). W om en m odelled their o rgan iz ing after the consciousness-raising g roups of the 1970s w h ich h ad proven em pow ering while defy ing traditional o rgan iz ing techniques a n d processes (Ristock 1991; Vickers 1991). H ow ever, one o f the problem s w ith th is ideology w as th a t p o w er relations d id n o t entirely d isap p ea r b u t o ften became less visible. Ind iv idual w o m en 's voices w ou ld be lost in the process of deciding how th e collective sh o u ld m ove forward. A lthough w om en invo lved w ere aw are th a t th ere w ere con trad ictions in this collective process, th e re w as little critique a t th is tim e of this a ltem ative feminist fo rm (Adam son, B riskin an d M cPhail 2000). D u rin g the late 1980s and into the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 1990's, th is 'id ea l' fem inist a ltem ative cam e to be heavily critic ized by fem inists and w o m e n 's com m unity groups because th e differences a n d pow er relations w h ich accom panied consensus and job-sharing w ere often d en ied in favour of m aintaining a unified collective identity o r th e no tion of sisterhood (R istock 1991). I. T h e W om en and H ea lth Sub-com m ittee As elaborated in C hapter Tw o, W HAG grew o u t o f the W om en and H ea lth Sub-com m ittee of the larger N o rth w estem O ntario In terna tional W om en's D ecade Council. D ecade w as a fem inist b o d y w ork ing on w o m en 's social, econom ic an d political issues in northw estem O ntario as p a rt of the b ro ad e r provincial S ta tus of W om en initiative of the 1970s (K arlsted t 1987). As a sub-com m ittee of Decade, the W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee identified concerns th a t w om en in the reg io n h ad lim ited access to health inform ation. The com m ittee m em bers organized as a fem inist collective, in a sim ilar fash ion to their paren t o rgan ization (Interview 6 Original W H A G m em ber). As w as explained by one of th e orig inal m em bers, " It w as an a ltem ative structure for w om en by w om en" (Focus G roup Decem ber 15, 1999). This loosely structured g ro u p w as interested in consciousness-raising as a m eans of sharing health rela ted experiences. As n o ted in their self-identified m andate: W e w ou ld like to sp en d tim e initially estab lish ing w ho w e are as indiv iduals a n d w h a t our a ttitu d e s to W om en 's health are. Self-education is a h igh p rio rity for the com m ittee in o rd e r th a t w e m ay operate effectively in this com plex and technical field (W omen a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M inutes Septem ber 21,1980). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 C onsciousness-raising was, a n d is considered basic to fem in is t organizing (A dam son, B riskin and McPhail 2000). O nce fo rm ed , w om en 's g ro u p s in the 1970s a n d early 1980s began to practice consciousness-raising as a m ean s of o rganizing them selves. Both the W om en and H e a lth sub-com m ittee a n d th e W HAG m em bersh ip w ere small, w ith usually n o m o re th an eight to ten w o m e n m eeting on a m onth ly basis (See W HAG M inutes 1980-1983). This enabled g ro u p m em bers to share personal experiences, le a m a n d g ro w together and to w o rk as a cohesive fem inist collective. Com m only, these sm all so m ew h a t structureless g ro u p s became the m odel fo r fem inist organizing an d o rgan izational s tru c tu res a n d processes (A dam son, Briskin and McPhail 2000). The W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee struc tu red them selves as a collective w ith non-hierarchical principles an d em p lo y ed a m odel of consensus decision­ m aking. T heir philosophical orien tation w as explicitly fem inist a n d the ir prim ary concem w as w ith articulating an d follow ing fem in is t process (In terv iew 6 W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M em ber, W HAG M em ber). This g ro u p o f w om en based the ir collective iden tity on their shared fem in ist orien tation a n d iden tity . M any of the w o m en also volunteered the ir tim e a t th e local W om en 's C entre , Northern Woman Jou rnal Collective and the D ecade C ouncil (Interview 6 W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M em ber, W HAG M em ber). In T hunder Bay, the w om en's conunun ity w as tightly interconnected w ith w o m e n routinely active in m ore than one g roup . Typical of this time, the local w o m e n 's g roups w o rk ed w ith a distinctly Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 fem in ist collective s tru c tu re (Interview 3 W H E P C oordinator; In terv iew 6 W H A G M em ber; In terv iew 11 W H E P C oordinator). T he W om en a n d H ea lth Sub-com m ittee a n d W HAG w ere in itia ted w ith o u t fund ing . A s W HAG m a tu re d an d new m em bers jo ined , it was decided th a t a three do llar m em bersh ip fee p e r y ear w ou ld be co llected (WHAG M inutes M arch 14, 1983). M aterials an d resou rces w ere collected b y dona tion or w ere b o rro w e d an d pho to co p ied (ie. one w o m a n knew ano ther w o m an w ho had in fo rm ation on a p a rticu la r topic) (In terv iew 6 O riginal W H A G M em ber). The w o m e n 's g roups su p p o rte d one ano ther a n d in the case o f the tw o W H A G represen tatives g o ing to T oronto fo r the first p rov incia l w om en 's h ea lth conference. Strategies for Well-Being, one h u n d re d an d fifty do lla rs w as received fro m the Decade C ouncil to cover the travel a n d accom m odation costs (The W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M inutes A pril 5 ,1980). T he W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee m em bers w ere in te res ted in com piling hea lth resources a n d in form ation w h ic h they though t cou ld b e of u se to w om en liv ing in T h u n d er Bay. Som e of the specific areas w hich they iden tified as n eed in g a tten tion w ere: w o m en 's general lack of know ledge a b o u t health , unnecessary surgeries (ie. caesarians an d hysterectom ies), w om en 's re la tionsh ip to the m ed ica l establishm ent; w o m en 's rep roduc tive h ealth issues such as ch ildb irth , b reastfeed ing and fertility ; a n d abortion (The W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M inutes, Septem ber 21, 1980). These reg iona l h e a lth concerns w ere ech o ed by Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 w om en 's h ealth groups across the province and nationally (McDonnell 1986). H ea lth resources for som e of these issues could be accessed th rough the local W om en 's C en tre (The W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M inutes A pril 5,1981). H ow ever, the W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee m em bers w ere aw are th a t the location o f health resources w as problem atic because som e w om en w ould n o t go the W om en 's C en tre for health inform ation. In part, th is w as because of the negative com m unity perception of the W om en 's C entre and its explicit fem inist orientation. As w as exp la ined by one of the participants, ... hard ly anyone w e n t to d ie W om en's C en tre because you know... it w as a bad w ord... th a t 's w here those terrible b ra-bum ing , horrible, m an h a tin g .... lesbian fem inists were... so they w ou ld stay aw ay from the W om en's C entre because Üiat w as the terrib le w ord rem em ber (feminist)... so w om en w e re n 't o r some w om en w eren 't go ing to the W om en 's C en tre for w om en 's health inform ation... an d w e knew that (Interview 6 O rig inal W H A G member). Reflecting o n w h y the W HEP project w as proposed for the region, one of the original W H EP coordinators com m ented further. It was... it w as funny , y o u know... th a t 's the bitter reality... in so far as I th ink you know... hav ing been involved in the W om en 's C entre and I 'm n o t criticizing it because I th ink th a t there is a role fo r a range but th a t 's som ething th a t w e never h ad a t the W om en's Centre... necessarily... w here ju s t your average woman... w ho d id n 't necessarily... b u t probably could have benefited from a lo t th a t w as there... b u t they d id n 't go there... they d id n 't associate w ith it (In terview 8 W HEP Coordinator). In recognition of the fact tha t only certain w om en w ere benefiting from the w o m en 's Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 health resources w h ich w ere being collected, it w as decided by th e W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee th a t they sho u ld seek to change their o rganizing efforts to enable m ore w om en (including reg ional w om en) access to the resources. How ever, by choosing to expand in to a m ore serv ice o rien ted group W HAG w as to undergo change. In p a rt, the changes w ere a re su lt o f the H ealth Prom otion fu n d in g received to accom plish the ir goal of reaching reg iona l w om en. As well, by open ing their m em bership to any regional w om en in te rested in organizing a ro u n d w om en's health their collective identity w ould a lso u n d erg o changes as not all of th e wom en w ho w ere to becom e involved w ou ld sh a re a collective fem inist identity . The fu n d in g resu lted in the g rassroo ts o rgan iz ing efforts becom ing further defined a n d m ore struc tu red (WHAG M inutes M arch 14,1983). A fter organizing for three years, in 1983 the W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee officially incorpora ted in to W HAG, the W om en 's H ealth A ction G roup (W HAG M inutes 1983; K arlsted t 1987). The purpose of th e incorporation w as a result of th e WHEP proposal w h ich h a d designed a project w ith a B oard of Directors to oversee the W om en's H ea lth E ducation Project fo r the th ree year duration of th e funding (Original W H EP proposal 1981). n . T h e W om en a n d H ealth A c tio n G ro u p (W HAG) The W H A G Board w as m ade u p o f e igh t to ten w om en, some in th e health care field, a n d struc tu red w ith executive positions includ ing a p residen t, vice- president, secretary an d treasurer (W H AG C o n stitu tio n 1983). In part, th is structure Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 evolved to m eet the H ealth P ro m o tio n Directorate fu n d in g requirem ents. As one partic ipan t explained. You h a d to have th is k in d of s truc tu re (a Board of D irectors) to get th e m o n ey from the governm ent... an d they h a d to be n o t se e n as a fem inist o rgan iza tion to get the m oney from the governm ent (In terv iew 6 W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M ember, W H A G M ember). In receiv ing the large project fu n d in g (approxim ately $320,000.00) a n d requ iring a B oard of D irectors to oversee the p ilo t project on w o m en 's health in no rthw estern O ntario w om en 's health o rgan iz ing activities w ere transform ed. First, it w as necessary fo r th e W HAG Board be accountable to th e H ealth P rom otion D irectorate in a w ay w h ic h w as unfam iliar a n d n o t necessarily desired by all o f th e m em bers. It became th e responsibility of the coordinators, once h ired to b o th organize the project and be accountable to the funders. The W H A G Board w o u ld m ee t four tim es a year to d iscuss initiatives how ever, their invo lvem ent in the pro ject's day-to-day activities w as m in im al (WHAG M inutes M arch 14,1983). Some o f the orig inal Sub-com mittee m em b ers continued to o rgan ize the resources w hich h a d been collected an d com piled in filing cabinets a t th e W om en's C en tre (WHAG M inutes M arch 14,1983). Thus, th e re w as a sort of d iv is io n in the w o m en 's health o rgan iz ing efforts w here o rgan iz ing w as taking place o n bo th a sm aller, local scale a n d in a larger, regional context. This sp lit can also be v iew ed in term s of th e w ays the g roups collective Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 identities w e re being developed. W HAG w as in te res ted in concentrating on their collective id en tity a n d process - bo th strongly fem inist. The W HEP coord inato rs prim ary focus w as reaching reg iona l w om en a n d p rov id ing them w ith health inform ation a n d resources. F u rthe r, this difference in the w ay the g ro u p s w ere structuring them selves can be v iew ed by acknow ledging tha t the WHEP coordinators w ere h ired a n d being paid to carry o u t a task w hile the W HAG w o m en w ere ord inary w o m en com ing together to n o t only share w om en 's health in form ation b u t develop the ir fem in ist identities, bo th indiv idual a n d as a collective. Second, because the s tru c tu re h a d changed from th a t of a sub-com m ittee or w orking g ro u p to a form alized, incorporated Board, the process of using consensus w as m odified to include voting . This structured change w as form alized in a policy how ever, u s in g th e process of ro u n d s w hereby every w om an present w o u ld have the opportun ity to speak w ithout in te rru p tio n until all w om en h ad spoken, a n d com ing to decisions th ro u g h consensus w as practised inform ally (W HAG C onstitu tion 1983; Interview 11 W H A G M em ber, W H EP C oord inato r). This fo rm al/in fo rm al a rrangem en t fo r decision-m aking becam e prob lem atic for some of th e W HEP coordinators (Interview 1 W H EP Coordinator; In terv iew 8 WHEP C oordinator; Interview 11 W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee M em ber, W HEP C oordinator). W H A G m em bers prio ritoes lay in the p rocess w hereas for th e W H EP coordinators th e focus w as o n de livering a service to reg ional wom en. Som e of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 W HEP coord inato rs felt th a t m ore d irection for the p ro jec t w as needed from the W HAG Board (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinator). H ow ever, the W HAG Board a lthough fu lly suppo rtive of W HEP w as n o t entirely in te res ted in ru n n in g a project the size of W H EP because of the loss of fem inist intim acy a n d process th a t had been p a rt of the W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee (Interview 6 W HAG Member). III. The W om en's H ealth Education Project nVHEPl As w as deta iled in C hap ter Tw o, the W HEP p ro jec t began in 1982 w ith a structure consisting of fo u r p a id coord inator positions w ith the W HAG Board overseeing their w o rk and the p rog ress of the project. As revea led th rough the early W H A G /W H E P m inutes, all of the coordinators had b e en h ired based on their know ledge of w o m en 's health issues, their fem inist o rien ta tio n and their willingness to w ork using a m odel of consensus decision-m aking (O rig inal W HEP proposal 1981 ; W HEP M inutes 1982). A lthough som e of the coord inato rs b rough t w ith them a know ledge of w ork ing collectively a n d experience w ith consensus decision-m aking, no t all h ad th a t particu lar know ledge base or experience. O n e partic ipan t explained w hy she h a d app lied for the position of W HEP C oord inato r, W om en 's health and health in general w as a lw ays an in te res t of mine.... an d I really liked the id e a of going o u t in to the N orthern com m unities... I th o u g h t th a t w as great, an d the concept of w ork ing collectively... I had been involved w ith the Northen Woman Jo u rn a l fo r quite a w h ile before I jo ined W HEP so I liked th a t idea because as a collective... the Northern Woman Journal w o rk ed very well, so I h ad these expectations th a t w e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 w o u ld w o rk m ore o r less in a sim ila r k in d of fashion (In terv iew 3 W HEP C oord inator). Once hired, i t becam e one of the first decisions th a t the fou r coordinators ag reed on: to w ork collectively u s in g consensus w ith in a n alternative (not m ale) struc tu re (Interview 11 W H EP C oordinator). A lthough fiie decision w as su p p o rted b y the four w om en, n o t all o f the w om en based the ir decision on a com m itm ent to shared fem inist ideals. All of th e coord inato rs u n d ers to o d th a t w o rk in g as a collective im p lied tha t there w as n o h ie ra rch y and all o f the positions w ere equal - p o w er and responsibility o v er th e project w as to be sh a red (In terv iew 3 W H EP C oordinator). Job sharing h a d b een a strongly ite ra ted gu ideline ou tlined in the o rig inal W HAG proposal. It s ta ted . T he W om en an d H ea lth Sub-com m ittee feel very stro n g ly o n this point. W e are lo o k in g a t tw o full-tim e jobs th a t are job-shared. W e have th o u g h t about job­ sh a rin g ju s t one of th e full tim e jobs an d having the o th e r as a regu lar one. H ow ever, w e realize tha t this v e ry easily could lead to h ierarchy . T he full-tim e person tak in g over as co-ord inator an d the tw o job sharers as assistan ts. W e then ru le d o u t th is alternative. (O rig inal W HEP Proposal 1981:28) All of the du ties, as d e te rm ined b y the coord inato rs w ere shared includ ing the bookkeeping fo r th e project. As exp la ined by one o f the original coordinators. T he w ay i t w as s tru c tu red w as there w ere basically no job definitions, so w h a t h ap p en ed w as th a t everybody job shared ... the w ay th a t w e im plem ented the idea of a co llective w as to sh are abso lu te ly everything... an d ro ta te tasks... even to the p o in t o f th e books and the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 financial accounting (In terview 8 W H E P C oordinator). Ideally , the job sharing of tasks a n d roles w as a n im p o rtan t p a rt o f w o rk ing collectively as a W H EP coordinator. H ow ever, a fte r a b o u t a year of w ork ing in th is m an n e r tiie job sharing and ill-defined positions becam e problem atic and h a d to be re-ev a lu a ted (Interview 11 W H EP C oordinator). A s th e above quo ted W H EP co o rd ina to r exp la ined further. W e determ ined a t th a t p o in t that th is ro ta tin g jobs w as really a burden... th a t i t w asn 't accom plish ing w hat it w as supposed to because people have d iffe ren t abilities a n d skills... (In terview 8 W HEP C oord inato r). In th e first couple of years job sharing w a s one area w here tensions ab o u n d ed . Characteristic of w o m en 's o rganizations a t th is tim e was a com m itm ent to sh a rin g a n d ro ta tin g jobs (Vickers 1991). As R istock (1991) explains, " th e ideal is th a t responsibility , know ledge an d accountability w ill be shared equally by all m em bers" (53). C erta in coord inato rs felt that if o n e w as b e tte r at a particu lar job o r ro le , such as bookkeeping or m ed ia relations, th e n th a t w o m an should b e the one responsib le to carry it out. H ow ever, o th e r coord inators h e ld firm ly the n o tio n th a t no o n e coord inato r should be the 'e x p e rt ' in any p a rtic u la r job, rather a ll shou ld sh a re the responsib ility of the tasks a n d ultim ately , th e project. Long, d ra w n o u t m eetings took place in w hich th e coord inators a tte m p te d to so rt out the particu lars of w h a t it m ea n t to w ork collectively, share jobs a n d use consensus a n d ho w specifically, th e project design w o u ld be accom plished w ith in the specified tim e fram e. U nacknow ledged w as the fact that by d e n y in g individual w o m e n 's Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 strengths an d w eaknesses in particu lar jobs w o m en 's differences, an d pow er relations betw een w om en w ere being overlooked. In th e quest for sam eness (ie. equality am ong the coordinators) pow er struggles am o n g the w om en em erged. The w ork load expectations w ere great and in dec id ing to use consensus and practice job sharing , the coord inato rs h ad unw itting ly in itiated a difficult process w hich w ould requ ire a significant am oun t of tim e to w o rk through. T hat w a sn 't there a t the start, th a t really developed , you know ... I characterize th e first year as try in g to get up an d running , ge tting really bogged d o w n in the process... of w ho does w hat... and w e rea lly d id n 't use the A dvisory G roup (W HAG Board) in th a t capacity... a n d it m igh t have helped... D o you know w h y you didn't? N o, I don 't. But it p robably w ould have helped.. We m igh t have been able to resolve som e of those things because there w as a b it of conflict... (In terv iew 8 W HEP C oordinator). The WHEP coord inators needed tim e to learn h o w to w ork together, w h o w as skilled in the specific tasks w hich needed to be done, a n d to understand w h y each of them w as com m itted to p ro v id in g w om en 's h ea lth inform ation in the region. Inevitably, there w ere tensions a n d pow er struggles. These tensions w ere exacerbated in part, because the W H EP coordinators w e re n o t able to go the W H A G Board to discuss em erging problem s. Because m any of W H A G Board m em bers h ad full tim e w ork ou tside of their m em bersh ip and only chose to m eet form ally four tim es a year, physically, the W H A G Board w as n o t available to the coordinators . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 As w as explained by one o f the original W H EP coordinators. A n d it w as upsetting because w e d id n 't ... w e h ad a B oard b u t it w as like a s tra w Board... and th a t 's n o t to sa y any th ing against anybody... i t w as really h a rd to try to figu re o u t how to in teg rate the organizations... b u t a t th a t fro n t line level... y o u know ... (Interview 11 W HEP C oordinator). O verw helm ingly, as w as explained by the orig inal W HEP coordinators it felt as if the four coordinators w ere responsible fo r the entire project (Interview 11 W H EP Coordinator; In terv iew 8 W HEP C oord inator; Focus G roup Decem ber 15,1999). Being responsible for th e project m eant th a t there w ere in te rnal problem s w ith the ir structure and p rocess as w ell the add itiona l w eigh t of b e in g responsible to the ir service goals. T he initial coordinators exp la ined that there w as no one to ask fo r expertise on e itiie r the in ternal or external p roblem s facing th e W H EP coordinators as the W HAG B oard, w h en available, w as n o t fam iliar or experienced w ith ru n n in g a project the size of W HEP (Focus G ro u p December 15, 1999). The in ternal problem s facing th e w om en including h o w they had chosen to structure them selves a n d m ake decisions w ere such that on ly they could choose to w o rk them out. For the coordinators, the tension over the a m o u n t of tim e w h ich shou ld be sp en t o n their organizational process and the tim e sp en t on de livering the service of prov id ing h ea lth inform ation and resources to w om en in the reg ion was one w h ich pervaded their m eetings and drained th e ir energy. Project decisions w ould only re su lt w h e n all of the coord inators could com e to a n agreem ent (In terview 1 WHEP C oord inato r; Interview 3 W H EP C oordinator). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 As m entioned earlier, in m aking a decision, they em ployed the process o f 'ro u n d s ' w ith each of the coord inato rs going a ro u n d in a circle discussing and voicing ideas a n d concerns u n til a n agreem ent on th e decision cou ld be m ade (Interview 1 W HEP C oordinator). Ideologically, using consensus a n d w ork ing collectively m ad e sense to the coordinators (Interview 11 W H EP C oordinator). Because a ll of the coordinators sh a red som e un d ers tan d in g of w ork ing in an alternative structure w here the w om en w ere sharing equal positions an d equal w orking hours, i t seem ed im portan t and necessary th a t decisions concerning the project w ere m ade in collaboration a n d equally w ith one ano ther. H ow ever, the process of w orking collectively and p u ttin g consensus in to practice w as tim e-consum ing an d difficult. F urther, there w as no collective analysis of the im plicit pow er rela tions w hich accom panied these organizational p rocesses a n d goals. As w as explained by each of the original W H EP coordinators; 1. T he coordinators m ad e the decisions and w e a ttem p ted to w ork w ith consensus an d you w ould th ink th a t w ith only the four o f u s i t w ou ld be possible... b u t it w a sn 't because som eone w o u ld alw ays change their m ind... w h ich w as extrem ely fru stra tin g because you know , w e w ou ld have th ese long, long, headache type m eetings w here w e w o u ld be go ing over som ething, try in g to m ake a decision ab o u t som ething... (Interview 3 W H EP C oordinator). 2 . 1 rem em ber spending a lo t of tim e in m eetings an d th a t becam e a real source o f fru stra tion because i t w as the collective piece... I th in k people sta rted feeling tha t process ... a n d p roduct w e re a lw ays difficult to balance a n d it seem ed th a t w e sp e n t a lo t of tim e around a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 m eeting table because everyone h a d to agree w ith everything... an d certa in people fe lt th a t consensus m ean t that w e all h a d to see eye to eye... (Interview 8 W HEP Coordinator). 3. It w as supposed to be a collective a n d w e h ad lots o f m eetings about s tru c tu re and process... w e sp en t a lo t of tim e on process... (In terv iew 11 W H EP C oordinator). O ne of th e concerns for the W H EP coordinators o v er the course of the three years w as the tim e requ ired in consensus decision-m aking. Because the coord inators had vary ing schedules, they typically w o u ld only w o rk together on lim ited days. I t w as im p o rtan t th a t w hen it came tim e to m ake a decision, the g roup of coord inators be available fo r m eetings w hich often , w ou ld end u p lasting several hours. Because som e of th e w om en w ere m ore ta sk ra th e r than process oriented, tensions surfaced (Interview 11 W HEP C oordinator; In terv iew 1 W H EP Coordinator). For som e of the w om en, n o t enough tim e w as sp e n t on process w h ile fo r o ther w om en, too m uch tim e w as sp en t on process. F urther, it w as felt th a t certa in w om en he ld m ore pow er and influence in the decision-m aking process (In terv iew 1 W HEP C oord inator; Interview 3 W HEP C oordinator; In terv iew 11 W H EP C oordinator). A lth o u g h attem pts w ere m ade by som e of th e w om en to address Üiese pow er im balances there w as a denial th a t pow er differences existed because ideally all w ere equal contributors to the project. Tensions existed am ong the w o m en w h o were coo rd ina ting the project th roughou t the three y e a r term . Two of the coord inato rs w ho h a d originally been h ired left and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 w ere replaced (Interview 3 W H EP C oordinator; Interview 11 W HEP Coordinator). O ne of the original W HEP coord ina to rs explained. It w as 's truc tu re lessness ' an d there w ere n o po in ts of accountability. T here w as no developm ent o f the alternative s tructure ... i t w as ju st people 's o w n idea of w h a t i t was... a n d certain people w ere v y in g for pow er.... it w a sn 't th a t individuals d id n o t w a n t to develop the struc tu re ... they just d id n 't h av e the know ledge or the perspective... (Focus G roup Decem ber 15,1999 - W HEP C oord inator). The different perspectives held b y the original coordinators m ay in part reflect their diverse educational a n d experiential backgrounds. Some o f the w om en had training in the social sciences and ed u ca tio n w hile another w o m an h a d a background in nursing. There w as no recognition o f the m ultiple social locations and experiences from which the w om en had com e to the project or the d ifferen t disciplines each had been trained in. Som e had b een actively involved in th e w om en 's com m unity, w orking collectively and using consensus for decision-m aking w hile the others d id n o t share this experience. As o n e w o m an com m ented, perhaps I was h ire d because I w as the to k en nurse... I d id n 't have a fem in ist analysis w hen I b eg an WHEP... an d I w as task-orien tated n o t focussed on th e process... (Focus G roup D ecem ber 15,1999 - WHEP C oordinator). D uring the interview s, i t w a s no ted th a t some of th e coordinators w ere m ore com m itted to developing a fem in is t analysis than others. As w ill be discussed in C hapter Four, the issue of a collective fem inist identity w as problem atic for the W HEP w om en and atten tion to process w as also contested. W hether the w om en Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 w ould focus o n th e tasks necessary to p ro v id in g health in form ation in the reg ion o r build ing a strong , fem in ist collective process w ere debates w h ich the coordinators faced daily. T hese d ivergen t goals affected h o w the process co u ld evolve and the w om en 's com m itm en t to m aintaining W H E F s explicitly p roposed fem inist orientation as o u tlin ed in the original p roposal. As w as d iscussed in C hapter Two, th e p ro p o sed objectives fo r year tw o of the W HEP project w e re to form ulate and deliver w orkshops k its o n th e health issues identified th ro u g h the su rvey of regional w om en . The su rv ey (1984), a lthough m ethodologically lim ited , h a d show n th a t w o m en in m any o f the com m unities in the region w e re m o s t in terested in w orkshops o n m ental h ea lth issues (ie. stress); nutrition, fitness a n d w eigh t control; b irth ing , child care a n d parenting; alcohol, sm oking and d ru g s; rep roductive health; sex education, b irth con tro l and abortion; patien t rights issues; an d relationship p roblem s (m arriage, sep ara tio n and divorce) including issues a ro u n d com m unication (Ram say: 72). U pon lea rn in g w ha t issues w om en w ere in te res ted in a ttending w orkshops for, the coo rd ina to rs began p u ttin g together the w o rk sh o p k its [See A ppendix I]. Initially, it w as th e coordinators w ho delivered the w orkshops to w om en living in th e regional com m unities (Interview 8 W HEP C oordinator). H ow ever as no ted in C hapter Two, i t w as decided by th e coordinators th a t regional w om en in each o f the target com m unities should be h ire d to fulfil the role of com m unity represen tatives. In part, th is w as because the coord inato rs believed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 th a t if the w orkshops w ere delivered by w o m en fro m the com m unity th ere w ould b e g rea ter 'ow nersh ip ' o f th e issues. A nother factor w h ich influenced th is decision w as logistical, specifically, th e tim e available a n d the tim e required to deliver the w orkshops w as unbalanced. T he fact tha t th ere w ere fo u rteen com m unities in w hich to deliver the num erous w orkshops w hich h a d been developed, o r w ere in the process of being developed a n d tha t the coo rd ina to rs h a d very full schedules led th e w om en to determ ine th a t i t w ould be in the best interests o f everyone if com m unity represen tatives cou ld be hired. The first year of th e p ro ject had seen th e coo rd ina to rs focus m u ch of their tim e a n d energy on process-related issues. W hen th e coordinators h a d begun the project, they h ad n o t an tic ip a ted the tim e th a t w o u ld be required. F u rther, the coord ina to rs h ad n o t b een in tim ately know ledgeable of the g rea t distances betw een th e ta rg e t com m unities a n d the tim e th a t w o u ld be invo lved w ith trave lling to com m unities to deliver th e w orkshops (In terv iew 11 W H EP C oordinator). As exp la ined by one coord inator. W e w ere d riv in g all over the place... I rem em ber flying to Pickle Lake... A nd ### b roke the axel o n h e r car... w e w ere try in g to d o everything... so lab o u r intensive an d a t a trem en d o u s personal cost... a n d I th in k that's w here you g o t th e stress... w h a t I m ean is th a t it got to be too m uch... (Interview 8 W H E P Coordinator). The physical g e o g rap h y of the reg ion p lay ed a significant ro le in shap ing h o w the w om en could realistically organize a n d s tru c tu re th e W HEP project. Thus, in year tw o changes occu rred in their o rgan iz ing process for several reasons. First, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 the tim e-consum ing m eetings left the coordinators w ith less tim e to invest in the construction a n d delivery of resources. Second, it w a s decided that regional, com m unity w o m en n eed ed to assume a sense of ow nersh ip over the w orkshops and desired changes in the com m unities. Finally, physical g e o g rap h y influenced how the W HEP project cou ld structure itself. It w as difficult, stressful and time- consum ing for th e coord inators to travel to all o f the ta rg e t com m unities delivering w orkshops (Interview 8 W HEP Coordinator). W HEP evo lved as th e coordinators a n d com m unity representatives learned how to reach th e iso lated w om en living in no rthw estern O ntario . The W HEP structu re u n d erw en t change as coordinators left and c om m un ity w om en became representatives. The process of using consensus to m ake decisions was m odified a n d personalized to fit the needs of the W HEP organ ization as it g rew in num bers a n d m atured. W hen th e m eeting (the final train ing session) w as held in Thunder Bay w here it w as decided to form an active, regional B oard, the W om en's H ealth Inform ation N e tw o rk (W HIN) in 1985, w om en 's efforts a ro u n d organizing for w om en 's health also underw en t changes in their struc tu re . Similarly, their collective iden tity w as to undergo changes as the Board becam e regionally based w ith m ore w om en partic ipa ting a t the decision-m aking level. IV. The W om en's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (W HIN) T here w as no m ore m oney after the th ird y e a r of W H EP an d w h en w e had that tra in ing session a t th e Avila C en tre w ith all the com m unity reps ... w e m ad e this decision to become... som ething different... to evolve Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 an d to look for m ore fu n d in g because the w o m en said you ju st can 't s top this now ... th is c a n 't end ... an d together w e m ade th is decision to fo rm th is new organization W H IN a n d th e first Board w as established there (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinator, W H IN Board M ember). W H IN began w ith non-pro fit sta tus, as a w o m en 's organization w ith m em bership across the region. A B oard of Directors w ith a n executive, including a president, vice-president, treasurer a n d secretary w as estab lished sim ilar to the form w hich the W H A G Board h ad ad op ted . A nnual m em bersh ip fees w ere collected (H ealth N etw ork N ew s Newsletter Fall 1985). The com m itm en t m ade by the wom en involved to w o rk as a regional o rgan ization w ith B oard rep resen ta tion in m any of the sm aller com m unities necessarily changed the s tru c tu re o f w om en 's organizing efforts. P ow er an d decision m ak ing w as no longer in the h an d s of a few w om en living in T h under Bay, rather, the responsibility an d d irec tion fo r the w om en's g roup now cam e from w om en w ho represen ted the d iverse sm aller com m unities of the region. D espite som e tensions, W H IN m em bers decided th a t they w ou ld continue to use consensus as a m ethod for decision m aking, sim ilar to W HEP. The W HIN Board and m em bership was organ ized in a m anner d ifferen t from traditional non­ profit organizations. Participants w ere encouraged to ac t fu lly an d speak during the rounds, w h ich w ere a p art of the consensus process. O ne partic ipan t explained. T hat's w hat W HIN d id fo r m e personally... I t a llow ed m e to become better a t speaking m y m ind ... o r a t least g iv ing m y op in ion (h iterv iew 13 W H IN Board Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 Member). H ow ever, there w as also m u ch tension over the issue of eq u a l voice and consensus. As one pa rtic ip an t explained. People u sed consensus to ge t their w ay because no t m aking a decision w as m ak ing the decision th e w ay th a t they w a n te d to... (Interview 5 W H IN Board Member). Sim ilar to som e of the p rob lem s W H EP h ad encountered, W H IN a t times also fo u n d itself s tru g g lin g w ith the consensus m odel. As was exp la ined in the focus g roup , ach iev ing consensus took tim e a n d o ften the Board w ou ld h av e to "let a decision float fo r a lo n g tim e" before consensus cou ld be achieved (Focus G roup D ecem ber 15,1999). W H IN did n o t develop an analysis as to w hy there w ere pow er struggles am ong th e w om en. R ather, th e g ro u p focussed on and m ain ta in ed their goal of sh a rin g h e a lth inform ation a n d resources w ith regional w om en . In jo in ing Board m em bers h a d to agree to a three y ear term . This term cou ld be sh a red a n d w as in s itua tions w h ere w om en w ere e ith e r w orking or ra is ing ch ild ren (Interview 12 W H IN B oard M em ber; Interview 13 W H IN Board M em ber). M onth ly m eetings w ere h e ld across the reg ion in all of the to w n s a n d com m unities w here th e re w as W HIN rep resen ta tion . The W HIN Board w o u ld use consensus to de te rm ine th e direction, decide on a pro ject to undertake, a n d then hire pro ject w orkers to carry out the project. O ften, the project w orkers w o u ld job share one position o ver distance (one w o rk e r in the W est and another in the East) in o rder fo r the p ro jec t to be regionally based . F u rther, by w o rk in g collectively on the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 developm ent of the p ro jec t all of the w o m en involved w ere ab le to a d d their in p u t a n d critique. Project w orkers w ould regu la rly rep o rt to the B oard o n the p rogress o f the projects. In m an y cases. Board m em bers w o u ld also w ork as volun teers on the project. Hence, th e re w as a strong feeling sh a red by all of the w o m en in terv iew ed o f the im portance o f w ork ing collectively o n each and every pro ject that W H IN undertook . V. T he W o rk E nv ironm ent O ne feature o f W H IN tha t se t it a p a r t from traditional o rgan izations w as its acceptance of alw ays h av in g children p resen t a t Board m eetings, w o rk m eetings an d conferences. In p a rt, th e w om en involved un d ers to o d that they w ere m others a n d m em bers of W H IN a n d w orked to com bine these identities as easily as possible. O ne participant exp lained , I c a n 't believe how w e w o rk e d around the kids... I rem em ber try ing to w ork a ro u n d the kids... like d o in g th ings like w riting.. I th ink i t w as a ro u n d som eth ing like a re p o rt fo r the project o n out-of-tow n b ir th o r som ething...w riting...no..it w as som ething fo r the d irec to ry of services for p re-na ta l care and um m .. the kids a re ru n n in g a round a n d w e w ere typ ing a t the com puters... (Interview 4 W H EP C oordinator a n d W H IN B oard M ember). W H IN m eetings a n d conferences a lw ays included plans for the ch ild ren of the W H IN Board m em bers. O ne W HIN B oard m em ber rem em bered. A t Q uetico w as w here w e p u t together th e fundraising ... w e took th e k ids and everything... som ebody h a d arranged fo r a y o u n g girl about th irteen or so to care for the kids... th ey h a d games an d stuff... Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 m y son still rem em bers that... he h ad su ch a good time... (Interview 13 W H IN B oard M ember). N o t on ly was a W H IN a child-friendly space for its m em bers b u t W H IN was also k n o w n for p rov id ing childcare for tihe w om en w ho w ere partic ipa ting in either the w orkshops or conferences. The W om en 's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork people... the w om en w h o w ere involved w ith w om en 's health issues... they p ro v id ed childcare.. (In terv iew 6 W H A G m em ber an d W H IN volunteer). M any o f the w om en in te rv iew ed m entioned the fact th a t W H IN p ro v id ed childcare a n d there was an acceptance of ch ild ren being p resen t in a w ork space. Taking into accoun t the fact tha t so m any of the w om en involved w ere m others, the provision o f these types of services enab led m any of the w o m en to partic ipate in w om en's h ea lth organizing activities. V I. F und ing Issues O ne of the p rim ary factors affecting W H IN 's structural shift w as a change in the w ay the w om en 's o rgan ization w as funded. W hile W HEP h a d seed project d o h a rs allotted to n o t only constructing resources b u t m anaging the p ro jec t, W HIN ex isted on project fu n d in g alone (Interview 1 W H IN Board M em ber). As w as exp la ined in an in terview , "w ith W H IN , w e w ent fo r fu nd ing w herever w e could..." (In terv iew 1 W HIN Board M em ber). Project b y project... th a t 's really ho w w e surv ived once those developm ental do llars were gone w ith WHEP... it w as project to project a n d th e funding affected w h a t w e did... som ew hat... in th a t funders w o u ld be looking for Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I l l certain k inds of projects... that's how y o u go t the projects approved... th e re w as alw ays criteria... so w e alw ays tried to be really creative and m ake o u r projects fit the criteria.... stre tch th e im agination a little bit., so th a t it d id fit... so it d id influence w h a t w e d id ., the project do llars tha t w ere available (In terv iew 12 W H IN Board M em ber). All of the B oard m em bers w e re volunteers a n d th e task of seek ing ou t possible funding an d then w riting p roposa ls to m eet the fu n d e rs 's expectations w as tim e consum ing an d exhausting (In terv iew 1 W HIN B oard M em ber). Eventually , som e of the Board M em bers experienced b u m o u t as a re su lt o f these tasks w hile o ther w om en ju st le ft the o rgan ization to focus on o ther activities. Various tensions su rrounded the issue of fund ing fo r W HIN. A t first, it w as difficult for some of the Board m em bers to m ake the tran sitio n from h av in g the security of core fu n d s to having to constan tly apply for m o n ey (Interview 2 W H IN B oard Member). F u n d in g affected, to a degree, w h a t projects could be p u rsu e d by the W H IN Board (Focus G roup D ecem ber 15,1999). P articu larly challenging, w as the fact th a t initially, only a few B oard M em bers w ere sk illed in p roposal w riting . O ne W H IN Board M em ber explained, I w as a p a r t of that... I m ean I d id n 't s it d o w n an d w rite ou t th e proposal b u t th e B oard w as a p a r t of that... because w e needed the m o n ey to survive... a n d th a t w as a lw ays one of the b ig problem s... from 1985 w hen W H IN form ed... it w as fro m g ran t to g ran t a n d you ju st never k n e w w h a t w as g o in g to be a ro u n d th e com er... so you w o u ld just k ind o f cross your fingers a n d hope tha t th e m oney w o u ld com e th rough (In terv iew 7 W H IN B oard M em ber, W H IN Project W orker). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 N ot only w as th e uncertain ty a ro u n d fu n d in g stressful fo r B oard m em bership an d project w orkers b u t the lack o f co re fu n d in g affected h o w the w om en could logistically o rgan ize them selves. O ne partic ipan t explained , W H IN d id n 't h av e a lo t of m oney so th e w hole organization... th ese w o m en h ad to d rive incredib le am o im ts of h o u rs to g e t to a m eeting a n d w e d id n 't h ave m oney to m ak e long distance calls... I m ean.... W H IN ... i t w a s a function of finances (In terv iew 5 W H IN Board M em ber). T hroughout the interview s fu n d in g issues w ere com m ented o n by W H IN m em bers. H ow ever, th e re w ere also p ro sp e ro u s W H IN tim es fro m 1987 th ro u g h to 1990 w h en m ore th an one pro ject w as fu n d e d a n d project w orkers w e re em ployed a t various tasks (H ealth N e tw o rk N ew s N ew sle tte r W in te r1987; Fall 1988; S p rin g 1989). W hile no t hav ing core fund ing m ean t th a t project w orkers a n d vo lun teers often h ad to assum e som e o f the tasks of ru n n in g the W H IN office, th e re w a s project m oney for Board developm en t (W HIN A n n u a l R eport 1987-88). W ith the opportun ity for Board developm ent, the W H IN w o m e n w ere able to s tra teg ize bo th short and long term goals w h ile developing th e ir techniques for u sing consensus (Interview 1 W H IN Board M em ber). Lack of core funds d id affect h o w the w om en cou ld com m unicate w ith one another, particu larly as project fu n d s w ere d ry ing u p (Focus G ro u p December 15, 1999). Because o f the great d istances b e tw een com m unities, a n d the h igh cost of long distance te lephone com m unication in the 1980s, regional w o m en w ere not able to spend tim e as m u ch tim e as they w o u ld have liked to d ev e lo p in g their organization. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 W hen rem em bering back to that tim e, one participan t explained. The w ay th a t I recall it... the w ay tha t W H IN opera ted as fa r as funding and all th a t stuff... w as they w ere a lw ays operating on a shoestring budget... th ey w ere a lw ays ju s t try ing to keep the doors open an d it w as the B oard a n d the staff w ho w ere constantly lo o k in g for som eth ing else to bring m oney in... to keep the office open a n d the staff on... a n d then I rem em ber th a t there w as no m ore m oney for staff a n d then it w as m an n ed [sic] by volunteers (Interview 5 W H IN Board M em ber). The w om en w ho w ere in terview ed constan tly rem inded m e th a t there was no technology as is k n o w n today. There w as no e-m ail and se tting u p a conference call w as costly and challenging (Interview 2 W H IN Board M em bers). W H IN m em bers w ere innovative in figu ring out w ays to com m unicate w ith one another. One Board m em ber explained h o w chain letters w ere used , w ith the W H IN inform ation being ty p ed u p and th en m ailed o u t to one M em ber, w ho up o n receip t w ou ld sign her nam e and m ail to the nex t w om an on the list (Interview 4 W H IN Board Member). F rom this po in t of view , W HIN m em bers saw them selves as "being ahead of their tim e" (Focus G roup Decem ber 15,1999). W hen the o p p o rtu n ity to apply fo r T rillium ^ funding, w here the goal w as 32 A s explained in thel990-91A nnual R eport for The Trillium F oundation , the goal is " to help fund tiiose vo lun tary social service organizations assisting the men, w om en and ch ild ren in O ntario w hose lives have been affected by adverse social circum stances or d isab ling conditions". The pu rpose of the O n tario Trillium F oundation is to "p rov ide funds in an equitable, efficient a n d socially acceptable m anner to p rivate non-govem m ental social service agencies w h ich provide services to the public th roughou t O ntario" (A nnual R eport 1990-91: 31). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 sustainable, long term developm en t th ro u g h the use of fu n d ra is in g cam e along, the W HIN B oard w as faced w ith perhaps, w h a t cou ld have b e e n their m ost difficult decision (Interview 12 W H IN Board M em ber). The Board m em bersh ip was at a n all tim e low a n d the w om en w h o w ere still active w ere experiencing volunteer fatigue from their activities. The w o m en w ere hopeful tha t w ith a s tro n g funding base, a regional coordinator could be h ired to m anage the day-to-day affairs of the netw ork w hich in tu rn , w ould alleviate som e of their volunteer tim e. U nclear however, w as the a m o u n t of tim e w hich w o u ld be requ ired by the Board to successfully fundraise the do llars necessary to m ain ta in the netw ork. 1 th ink T rillium is w h a t killed us... to be honest... really, 1 th ink th a t is w h a t p u t us under... those T rillium dollars... th a t 's w h a t d id it... th a t w as another decision th a t I rem em ber sitting in the T hunder Bay office deciding ab o u t that... w e h a d a representative from Trillium com e a n d m ake a presentation a b o u t the Trillium dollars a n d th a t w as a b ig decision fo r u s .. A nd it took us a w h ile to m ake it... (Interview 12 W H IN Board M em ber). H ow ever, once the decision w as m ade the Board m oved full force in to developing a fundraising cam paign^. I t w as a t this tim e, 1990, th a t W H IN began to believe th a t they m ight possibly have a long-term fu ture in th e reg ion of northw estern O n ta rio (H ealth N etw ork N ews S pring 1990). They h a d done Board developm ent, th e y h a d a successful 33 In June o f 1990, W H IN received $32,800 from The Trillium Foundation . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 h isto ry of o rgan iz ing in the region, an d th ey knew how to reach th e w om en liv ing in the isolated com m unities. Further, the ir collective identity w as cohesive in th a t the p rim ary goal o f p ro v id in g w om en w ith hea lth inform ation w as central to th e ir o rgan iz ing efforts. H ow ever, the w om en w ere to leam th a t fundraising w as a difficult task, p a rticu la rly because "w o m en 's health w as n o t easy to sell" (Focus G roup Decem ber 15,1999). As one W H IN B oard m em ber sta ted . W e ju s t saw the dollars a n d a n opportun ity to keep W H IN alive an d going... b u t i t sucked the life r ig h t o u t of u s because w e all... all o f o u r resources w e n t in to fundraising ... an d we c o u ld n 't do anything... an y projects... all w e were d o in g w as fundraising a n d w e w e re n 't fu n d raisers... as a n organization w e w ere p itifu l a t fundraising... abso lu te ly pitiful... I rem em ber w e o rg an ized a car rally in K enora... we w ere excited ab o u t it... b u t it took m ajor w o rk to set it up... b u t i t w a s n 't o u r expertise... the w orkshop kits... th a t w as o u r expertise.. (Interview 12 W H IN Board M em ber). The decision to w o rk w ith the T rillium dollars m eant th a t the actual w ork of sh a rin g health in fo rm a tio n w ith w om en in th e region w as, in a w ay , p u t on h o ld w h ile the Board m em b ers could fundraise. T here was ten sion am ong the B oard m em bers over th is decision. A lthough the B oard agreed th a t fu n d s w ere necessary to the survival o f W H IN , com prom ising th e goals of W H IN to achieve this w as problem atic for som e of th e wom en. The B oard started to d isso lve shortly after th is decision because th e re w ere no funds to b rin g the regional w o m en together fo r B oard M eetings (Focus G roup Decem ber 15,1999). Eventually, as w as discussed in C h ap te r Two, W H IN disso lved w ithou t fo rm ally deciding as a B oard to end its Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 organizing efforts (In terv iew 2 W HIN B oard M em ber; Focus G roup December 15, 1999). 3.4 UNDERLYING POWER: TENSIO NS T here a re politics everyw here... an d w hen peop le com e to g e th er to do w ork th e re w ill alw ays be conflict... (In terv iew 5 W H IN Board M em ber). Ristock (1991) contends that w hen w om en come together to w ork collectively to p rov ide a service, th ey can have a difficult tim e acknow ledging the pow er rela tions a t w o rk w ith in the ir o rganization an d will "let p o w er issues fester ra ther th an articu lating th em a n d w ork on so lu tions" (1991:46). In p a rt, she attributes this avo idance to w o m en 's com m itm ent to em pow ering w om en th ro u g h their w ork and w o m en 's assum p tion th a t pow er is b ad o r alw ays negative. T his v iew of pow er as negative denies th e fact th a t pow er exists a t bo th the m icro a n d m acro levels and th a t w om en are n o t a lw ays pow erless. R ather, dependen t o n the various m ultiple social locations th a t a w om an occupies she m ay hold p o w er in certain situations w hile in other situations, she m ay in fact have less pow er. W ithin W H EP there existed in te rn a l conflicts am ong th e fou r coordinators a n d the W HAG B oard (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinator, W H IN Board M ember; In terv iew 3 W HEP C oordinator). For the coordinators, differences arose over issues o f organizational process as W HEP h a d chosen to w ork fro m a m odel of consensus (In terv iew 3 W H EP C oordinator). F u rther, the four coord inators he ld differing fem in ist philosophies w hich caused som e in ternal struggle a n d conflict (Interview Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 1 ,2 ,3 ,8 ,1 1 , W HEP C oordinators, W HIN B oard M embers). I t w as fe lt by all o f the coordinators th a t they d id n o t have the su p p o r t th a t they n eed ed fro m W H A G (Interview s 1 ,3 ,8 ,1 1 W HEP C oordinators). All o f th e coordinators h a d been h ired because of their com m itm ent to w om en 's h e a lth an d their belief in fem inist principles. O nce involved in the project how ever, the problem o f defin ing an d agreeing u p o n a fem inism they all could be com fortable w ith becam e an issue (Interview 3 W HEP C oordinator; In terview 11 W H EP Coordinator). P ow er issues both am o n g the coordinators a n d betw een th e tw o w om en's g ro u p s rem ained unadd ressed th roughou t th e ir duration. A lthough the W om en 's H ealth A ction G roup (W HAG) h ad been instrum ental in w riting the original proposal a n d securing this fund ing , soon after the project began, W HAG con tinued to fu nc tion as a 'p aper B oard ' for W HEP (Interview 1 W HEP C oordinator, W H IN B oard M ember; In terv iew 8 W H EP C oordinator; Interview 11 W HEP C oordinator). T he reasons for th is a re unclear, how ever, i t appears tha t W H A G functioned as a fem inist collective a n d actively chose n o t to participate in th e structu red , heav ily funded W H EP o rgan ization (Interview 6 W HAG Member). W H A G m em bers d id n o t w ant to be h e ld to the h igh level o f accountability requ ired by the H ealth P rom otion D irectorate, H ealth an d W elfare C anada (Interview 6 W H A G M ember). M any of the W H A G m em bers d id vo lunteer w o rk for W HEP either in the fo rm of p rovid ing them w ith files of collected inform ation on d ifferent w om en 's h e a lth issues or they w o u ld organize Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 and facilitate d ifferent h ea lth w orkshops, produced by W HEP, fo r w o m en in T hunder Bay (Interview 6 W H A G M em ber). A s well, there w as ind iv idual su p p o rt around sh a red fem inist ph ilosoph ies fo r the W HEP coordinators from som e o f the W HAG m em bers (Interview 3 W H EP C oordinator). In ad d ition , there w as a lw ays a deg ree of tension am ong the reg ional w om en over the choice of T hunder Bay as the h ead office of W H EP (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber). As w as described earlier, n o rth w este rn O ntario is a large region m ad e u p o f several sm all com m unities w ith T h u n d e r Bay as the la rg est city in the area. Because of the u rban na tu re of the city i t is often view ed by m an y in the reg io n as the 'T o ron to of the N o rth ' (Interview 5 W H IN Board M em ber). In fact, W H E P 's office w as located in T hunder Bay because o f the original fu n d in g proposal (In terv iew 11 W H A G M em ber, W HEP C oord inato r). W HAG w as a T hunder Bay collective, a n d a lthough the p roposal se t o u t to w o rk w ith w om en in th e region, th e g ro u p believed th a t T hunder Bay w as a logical p lace for the pro ject to w ork from . The W H IN w om en d id n o t speak of a collective analysis of the m icro p o w er relations w h ich w ere p a rt of the ir organization. They d id articu la te a fully developed analysis of the p o w e r of d o m in an t discourses o n health an d h o w these played them selves ou t in th e larger context. This was evidenced th ro u g h the ir philosophy, definition of h ea lth [See A ppend ix J], and the ir goals. H ow ever, in term s of th e day-to-day re la tions betw een Board m em bers and pro ject w orkers Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 w hen tensions arose a n d consensus w as lo d g ed , there w as never an analysis of pow er. Sometimes th e tensions arose because o f the perceived differences betw een the regional w om en a n d the w om en liv ing in T h u n d er Bay. A t o ther tim es, tensions arose over decisions concern ing ind iv idual projects, the w ay decisions w ere being m ade, an d over w ho w as determ ining the v is io n for the projects. In som e cases, efforts w ere m ade to com e together as a B oard a n d discuss problem s how ever, m o st often a ttem pts to sm o o th over the difficulties w e re superficial in th a t th e w om en w ere unable to break d o w n the underly ing p o w e r relations. For som e w om en , the tensions w ith in W H IN w e re never resolved w h ile participating in the o rganization (Interview 9 W HIN P ro ject W orker). A ttem pting to u se the process of consensus and the practice of job-sharing bo th w hich de-em phasize the notion o f 'e x p e rt ', the w om en 's g ro u p s in no rthw estern O ntario w e re exploring an a lte rn a tiv e form of o rgan iz ing based in a fem inist orientation. A s cam e through in the in terv iew s, this collective struc tu re w as em pow ering for m ost w om en , a t least som e o f th e time. H ow ever, because there w as never any checkpoint o r analysis by the w o m e n of the in ternal p o w er relations w hich existed w ithin th is alternative fram e, W H E P and W H IN w ere n o t fu lly able to u n d ers tan d and tran sfe r their m acro analy sis of pow er (health care system against w om en) to th e m icro level of in d iv id u a l pow er relations. This lack of in ternal reflection of p o w e r on the p a rt of th e w om en 's g roup m ay have resu lted because the w om en's collective identity w as n o t explicitly fem inist. R ather, W H IN Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 w as focussed on delivering h ea lth inform ation a n d resources to w om en liv ing in the N orthw est region. 3.5 SUMMARY W om en's health o rg an iz in g in the northw estern O ntario region began w ith a generous opportunity fo r core, seed fund ing from the H ealth P rom otion D irectorate in the early 1980s. This evolved into a con tinuous struggle fo r m onies o n a project-to-project basis. Finally, after pu rsu ing the possibility of fund ra ising as a m eans of generating e n o u g h funds to sustain itself, th e w om en's efforts w ere d efea ted w ith m uch d ism ay. Sim ilarly, and as w ith m any w om en's organizations, fu n d in g issues were critical a n d discussion of th e m overlapped in com plex w ays th ro u g h o u t the interviews. The w om en involved w ith W HEP and W H IN understood th a t th ey w ere w o rk in g in a w om en's o rg an iza tio n that w as s tru c tu red differently from a trad itiona l 'm ale ' o rgan ization a lth o u g h there w as m uch disagreem ent a s to w h a t th e ir struc tu re was. This w a s problem atic over th e th ree years and som e of the w o m en left the organization on ly to re tu rn again a t a later time. Further, a lthough a ll of the w om en's health g ro u p s shared the ph ilo sophy of using consensus for decision-m aking the process becam e unique to each group. In ligh t of Beagan's (1996) conceptual fram e o f praxis and identity, i t is useful to th in k abou t d ie tensions experienced by W H IN m em bers w iüi reference to the fem in ist postm odern stan d fo r th is analysis. T h ro u g h o u t th is chapter I have been Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 highlighting the tensions involved w ith th e politics of the organizing experiences b y the W om en and H ealth Sub-com m ittee, W HAG, W H EP and WHEN. It is apparen t th a t contradictions abounded b o th w ith the ind iv idual and the collective w om en 's identities. Further, the tensions a round identity , bo th ind iv idua l an d collective affected how the w om en could organize them selves and the larger project. As w as dem o n stra ted th roughou t th is chapter, the w om en 's identities w e re flu id a n d m ultip le affecting w h a t issues w ere defined as no rthw estern O ntario w o m en 's health issues, the logistics of their s truc tu re an d the contradictions felt in u s in g the process of consensus for their decision-m aking. M oreover, there w as little analysis of the pow er b u ilt into the organizational form a n d the pow er relations w hich individual w o m en possessed or lacked because of the various social locations they occupied. W ithin the socio-historical context of w om en 's health organizing efforts in no rthw estern O ntario , C hapter Four w ill lay o u t how the w om en w ho partic ipa ted in these specific efforts constructed regional an d fem inist discourses a ro u n d identity. I w ill describe the w om en w ho participated in these health o rgan iz ing activities a n d w hy it w as possible for th em to be involved. I will outline F raser's (1992) pragm atic m odel of discourse theory as a m eans for un d ers tan d in g the com plexities inheren t to understand ing identities, bo th indiv idual and collective. Regional id en tity intersected and w as jux taposed w ith fem inist iden tity fo r this particular in itiative in w om en's health organizing. I w ill p rov ide an analytical look Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 a t the tensions a n d contrad ictions experienced by the w om en in a ttem pting to define a collective iden tity fo r th e ir organization . I w ill d raw o n excerpts from the interview s to illustra te how th e w o m en 's identities w ere sh ifting and overlapped depend ing o n the specific co n tex t th ro u g h w hich their identity w as being negotiated. Reproduced with permission ot the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 CHAPTER 4 - W OMEN'S IDENTITY IN NORTHW ESTERN ONTARIO: FEM INISM AN D REGIONALITY 4.1 INTRODUCTION Social identities a re d iscursively constructed in historically specific social contexts, they are com plex a n d plural; a n d th ey sh ift over tim e (Fraser 1992:178). Iden tity , both collective a n d ind iv idua l is the focus of th is chapter. Specifically, I exam ine h o w the w o m en invo lved w ith w om en 's h ea lth organizing in n o rth w estern O ntario constructed regional a n d fem inist identities. I w ill illustrate h ow these ind iv idual iden tity d iscourses w ere partia lly shaped by th e participants experiences w ith the regional w o m en 's health o rgan iz ing efforts, a n d th e w om en's perceptions of th e larger w o m en 's m ovem ent, w h ich included their u nders tand ing of fem inism . V arying notions of reg iona l an d fem in ist iden tity surfaced in com plex and overlapp ing w ays th roughout th e interview s. This analysis w ill dem onstra te how bo th the reg ion and the w om en 's m ultiple, som etim es conflicting understand ings of fem inism co-existed in fo rm ula ting their collective and in d iv id u a l identities. Excerpts from th e interview s illu stra te how n o tio n s of regionalism a n d fem inism b o th in fluenced and facilitated the construction of collective a n d individual iden tities a n d dem onstrates the m ulti-layered n a tu re of iden tity construction. Social identity is constitu ted th rough a p lu rality of d iscourses w hich are in te rtw in ed a n d overlapping. Iden tity becom es partially constructed as an Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 ind iv idual presents herself in the discourse in w h ich she is participating a t a specific tim e (Fraser 1992). U nderstand ing and know ing how an individual constructs her iden tity is thus, a lw ays partia l and dependen t o n the p resen t context. Furtherm ore, as explained by Riley (1997) the category, " 'w o m e n is historically, discursively constructed , and alw ays relatively to o ther categories w hich them selves change..." (241). The contradictions w hich Riley speaks of su rro u n d in g w om en 's ind iv idual an d the collective id en tity w ere always p resen t to som e degree in m y research interview s. W ithin the la rg e r w om en 's m ovem ent, iden tity politics are central. F rom the m id-eighties onw ard , th e category 'w om en ' h a s been problem atized. T he equality- difference debate exists as a substantially con ten tious issue in bo th theory and practice (Riley 1997; S tan ley 1997; Marx Ferree an d Yancey M artin 1995; Delm ar 1994). W om en's g ro u p s now , and in the p a s t have grappled w ith collective defin itions of fem inism w hich all w om en in th e g roup could unify a ro u n d (Beagan 1996; P ierson 1993). In m y exam ination of fem in ist iden tity , I dem onstra te how the w om en 's groups in no rthw estern O ntario w ere n o t un ique in their s trugg les for collective fem inist identities. N ancy F raser's (1992) pragm atic m odel of d iscourse theory fo r ind iv idual a n d collective iden tity is useful in this case s tu d y as it p rovides a fram ew ork for u nders tand ing how iden tity is linked to fem in ist politics (185). T his m odel illum inates the process of how individuals com e together to bu ild collective Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 iden tities (K aufert 1998). The th reads o f h o w a n d w hy tensions w ere experienced by th e w om en in b u ild in g a collective iden tity are sign ifican t an d central to th is analysis. I begin b y ou tlin ing some of the specific dem ographic deta ils of the w o m en w h o partic ipa ted as h ea lth activists in no rthw estern O ntario . This follows w ith a conceptual m ap of F raser's (1992) p ragm atic m odel of d iscourse theory. I exp la in h o w it is heuristic fo r th is case study o f w o m en com ing to g e th e r to form w o m en 's h ea lth g ro u p s an d in the process, b u ild collective identities. I link this w ork w ith B eagan's (1996) a rg u m en t which argues th a t by utilizing a p o stm o d ern approach w e are able to situate a n d understand w o m en 's iden tity an d praxis. Regionalism , an d a m eaningful sense of 'N o rth em n ess ' as p ro m in en t d iscourses in th e in terv iew s shaped h o w th e w om en u n d e rs to o d their ind iv idua l a n d collective iden tities (as well, it in fluenced the w om en 's p rax is, as w as d iscussed in C h ap te r Three). M oreover, these d iscourses fram ed h o w the w om en w ere able to fo rge th ro u g h , an d resist the reg ional gendered discourses. Finally, 1 exam ine h o w fem inist ideologies an d orientation influenced bo th th e w om en 's ind iv idua l a n d collective identities. A lthough con tested , these iden tities shifted to v a ry in g degrees over the years reflecting d iverse understand ings o f fem in ist orientations. 4.2 N O R TH W ESTER N O N TA R IO H E A L TH ACTIV ISTS; T he Partic ipan ts H u n d red s of w o m en w ere in vo lved w ith the w o m e n 's health o rgan iz ing from all of the m any com m unities th a t m ad e u p no rthw estern O ntario in the 1980s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 an d early1990s. W om en 's involvem ent v a rie d depend ing on the ir stage o f life (age; place of residence; a n d personal experiences w ith specific h ea lth issues) and the opportun ities available. A t tim es, there w e re p a id positions as p ro jec t w orkers on the w orkshop k its o r as coordinators; a n d a t o ther times, the w o m en 's w ork p rovid ing h e a lth in form ation and resources w as strictly vo lun teer. M any of the partic ipan ts in terv iew ed w orked for th e d u ra tio n o f the w om en 's efforts from the W om en's H e a lth A ction G roup (WHAG) th ro u g h to the end of the W om en 's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (W HIN). As n o te d in C hap te r O ne, tw elve w o m e n w ere in terv iew ed a n d of those tw elve, five partic ipa ted in a focus g ro u p u p o n com pletion of th e individual interview s. The w om en h ad lived in six d ifferen t com m unities (bo th ru ra l and urban) in th e reg ion a t the tim e of their invo lvem en t. The in fo rm ation gathered from the in terv iew s w as to som e degree rep resen ta tive of the w o m en 's experiences w ith in the reg ional con tex t as the w om en w h o participated in the in terv iew s were from five o f th e sm aller regional com m unities a n d from bo th ru ra l a n d u rban T hunder Bay. A t the tim e of the w om en 's involvem ent, the w om en ran g ed in age from tw en ty -th ree to thirty-nine. All b u t one of th e w om en in terv iew ed , were m others of y o u n g o r school age ch ild ren a t the tim e of their involvem ent. The w om en 's ro les as m o th e rs w as cen tral to the ir discussions of iden tity , both indiv idual a n d collective, an d their p rax is as a w om en 's g roup as 1 discussed in C hapter Three. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 The in terv iew respondents w ere largely a g ro u p of educated w om en. O f the tw elve in terv iew ed , one had a M aster's degree in journalism , five h e ld university degrees in various disciplines (nursing , science, hum anities, and tw o in th e social sciences), th ree h a d some university train ing , one h a d a heavy m echanics certificate a n d an a th letic therapy certificate, one he ld a d ip lom a in nursing specializing in occupational health and safety, an d one w o m an h a d h e r grade tw elve diplom a. In terestingly , all b u t three have fu rth ered the ir educa tion since th e tim e of their invo lvem ent w ith w om en's health , m any in health -re la ted fields. F rom th e w ork of the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com mittee, W H A G , W HEP a n d W H IN there evolved num erous o th er sm aller sup p o rt and self-help g roups w hich functioned independently from the N orthw estern O ntario W om en 's H ealth In fo rm ation N etw ork. Some of these sm aller self-help and advocacy groups included: the C hildbirth and E ducation S u p p o rt G roup , the Com m ittee to Re-lnstate B irthing System s (CRIBS) in N ipigon, a n d the La Leche League (breastfeeding su p p o rt group). Finally, all of the w om en h ad been extensively involved in the ir com m unities in various o th er volunteer and com m unity o rgan iz ing capacities a t th e tim e of their invo lvem ent w ith w om en's health^ . A stro n g com m itm ent to com m unity w as one 34 Som e o f th e w om en 's activities included: local school boards, lib rary a n d hospital tru stee 's , consum er panels, the O ntario M idw ifery Task Force, the L akehead Social P lann ing Council, the C anad ian A bortion R ights League, the O ntario C oalition of Daycare Centres, the D istrict H ealth Council, W om en of the M oose Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 characteristic they all shared . T he act of being socially conscious an d com m itted to com m unity th rough active vo lun teer w ork is a central feature of the w o m en 's collective regional identity . This in part, evolved from the w ork of the w o m en 's health g ro u p s and w om en fin d in g their voices' th ro u g h the consciousness-raising experiences a n d understand ing th a t the socio-m aterial realities of their lives w as som eth ing facing all regional w om en, n o t ju s t them selves as individuals. The w om en 's health groups em pow ered w om en to be vocal in their com m unities. In add ition there was, a n d rem ain s a gendered d iscourse of w ho is responsible for looking afte r a n d creating com m unity . 4.3 N O TIO N S OF IDENTITY I. C ollective/Individual Identity B uilding: A Pragm atic M odel o f D iscourse Theory Sim ilar to Beagan's (1996) m odel as d iscussed in C hap ter Three, F raser's (1992) pragm atic m odel of d iscourse theory is usefu l fo r understand ing how w o m en form social identities, com e together to bu ild collective identities and form social m ovem ents. F raser explains tha t, "discourses a re historically specific, socially situated , signifying practices " (1992: 185). F u rther, she suggests that d iscourses unify language w ith social practices. U tilizing d iscourse theory and the p ragm atic m odel is va luab le because i t p rovides a fram ew ork fo r exam ining how w om en com e together to bu ild collective identities and p ro v id e services to other w om en. and the Professional W om en's Business Q u b in K enora. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 This m o d e l beg ins by explain ing h o w discourses evolve in specific times, locations a n d social contexts. D iscourse theo ry recognizes the flu id ity and flexibility o f the discourses, n o n e o f w hich are sta tic (185). In Fraser's w ords, " th e m odel lends itself to h istorical contextualization, a n d i t allow s us to them atize change " (1992: 185). This is im p o rtan t fo r contextualizing th is case study of w o m en 's organizing over tw elve y ears in no rthw estern O n tario , as the w om en's collective identities w ere sh ifting in re la tio n to the g ro w in g com plexity of the reg iona l an d fem inist discourses fo u n d w ith in the groups as th ey evolved. The seco n d p o in t w hich Fraser m akes is one w hich positions individuals as "socially s itu a ted agen ts" (1992: 185). In th is case study, th e w om en, both as individuals a n d as g ro u p s w ere n o t on ly reac tin g to the social, political and econom ic situa tions o f the tim es b u t w ere also constitu ting these discourses. Fraser notes th a t d iscourses a re relational to one an o th er form ulating a n d reform ulating each other in th e specific social situations a s they occurred. T hird, th e pragm atic m odel s itua tes d iscourses as p lural (1992:185). Thus, I can establish th a t the ind iv idua l w om en a n d the groups of w om en in northw estern O ntario w ere o p e ra tin g in a m yriad of d iscourses. Both ind iv idual and collective identities a re n o t m onolith ic b u t sh ifting in rela tion to the specific discourses th rough w h ich they opera te (1992: 186). So fo r example, w h en th e w om en w ere negotiating th e ir collective identity in re la tio n to the larger w o m en 's m ovem ent, it w as im portan t fo r th em to speak w ith a collective regional identity ; how ever, w hen Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 th e reg ional w om en w ere loca ting them selves as com m unity w om en in relation to the T h u n d er Bay w om en, i t w as im portan t tha t th e w o m en identify w ith a discourse w h ich centrally located th e ir ind iv idual com m unities. Fourth , Fraser p o in ts o u t th a t the p ragm atic m odel "rejects the assum ption th a t th e to tality of social m ean in g s in circulation constitu tes a single, coherent, self- rep ro d u c in g 'sym bolic sy s tem ' " (1992:186). In o th e r w ords, discourse theory and analysis a llow for the tensions a n d conflicts w h ich a re im plicitly and explicitly part o f nego tia ting social iden tities. This is im p o rtan t because it dem onstrates that u n d e rs tan d in g identity, e ith e r indiv idual o r collective, is no t n e a t an d tidy. Identities sh ift depend ing o n th e context th ro u g h w h ich they are experienced. As w ill b e d iscussed la ter th is w as ev ident in this case s tu d y w hen the w om en were a ttem p tin g to explain th e ir o w n understand ing of gen d ered realities. Finally, because th e p ragm atic m odel connects social relations a n d society w ith th e s tu d y of d iscourses, w e a re able analyse the pow er relations w hich are p lay ed o u t in these sh ifting experiences (1992:186). A s n o ted in the in troduction of th is chap ter, pow er is re la tiona l (Sawicki 1991) a n d shifts as indiv iduals deploy various iden tity discourses availab le to them in g iven situations an d contexts. Because the p ragm atic m o d e l presented by F raser is complex it offers us a too l fo r understand ing th e subtleties involved in the form ation of identities. F rase r 's pragm atic m odel corroborates w ith B eagan 's assertion for a feminist p o stm o d ern approach to u n d e rs ta n d in g w om en 's collective identity a n d praxis. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 4.4 REGIONAL IDENTITY Identification w ith a geographic region can be a positive force, giving m eaning, identity, com m unity... H ow ever, reg ion also determ ines difference, a n d difference is m ost often understood as disadvantage. (H eald 1991) The reg ion is central to the constructions of the partic ipan ts ' identities both ind iv idual a n d collective. N otions of identity and the discourses available to w om en and m en are inextricably bound u p w ith the prevailing ideologies of the region (W akew ich2000). In the case of northw estern O ntario, a h in terland in rela tion to the sou thern p a r t of the province, identities are often fo rm ed w ith the understand ing tha t pow er a n d decision m aking a re m ostly in the han d s of sou thern counterparts w ho have little if any understand ing of the region an d its specific character or needs (Southcott1993). In relation to the political pow er he ld by those in sou thern Ontario, indiv iduals govern ing and living in northw estern O ntario often project discourses of resistance in their N orthern identities. G enerally, th is collective understand ing of a h in te rland iden tity evolves th rough a collective y e t fragm ented and individual process of self-definition. Often, this process occurs as individuals define them selves a n d their com m unities in relation to o thers in the sou thern p a rt of the province though explanations of difference (W e are... w h a t they are no t) an d similarities. The explanations how ever, are no t static b u t continually shifting dependent on the specific tim e an d context. Further, the culturally significant differences and sim ilarities w hich are ascribed to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 Southerners and N o rth ern e rs by those liv ing in no rthw estern O n tario take place a t a n everyday d iscu rsive level^ (D unk 1991). In th is process, the cultural characteristics w h ich a re ascribed to N ortherners and S ou therners are negotiated in to several collective reg ional discourses. A lthough each ind iv idua l com m unity in no rthw estern O ntario varies, the differences and un iq u en ess of the ind iv idual com m unities an d tow ns in the region becom e insignificant w h e n discussing a n d m aintain ing a reg iona l iden tity w ithin the larger province. C onsisten t w ith the N orth-South d istinc tion m ade by those liv ing in northw estern O ntario , there is a n assum ed discursively constructed pow er im balance betw een T h u n d e r Bay and th e sm aller tow ns a n d com m unities in the region. Because of the re la tive size (largest city in northw estern O ntario) a n d cultural d iversity found in T h u n d er Bay in com parison to the sm aller com m unities, regional iden tity becomes fu rth e r negotiated a n d understood by its inhabitants. The com m on perception h e ld by m any living in no rthw estern O n tario , including m any of the w om en in terv iew ed w ho lived in the sm aller conunun ities in the region, is th a t T hunder Bay is th e "T oronto of the N orth" . This n o tio n of the m etropolis- h in terland difference w as repeated several tim es th roughou t th e interview s. One 35 Exam ples of Southerner be ing w eak w hile N ortherners are h earty and strong are prevalent. N ortherners assum e them selves to be strong because they live in a reg ion w hich experiences h a rsh fluctuations in the clim ate w hereas Southerners a re identified as w eak because they live in a relatively m ild clim ate. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 partic ipan t explained. They som etim es call T hunder Bay th e "Toronto of the N o rth" ...th a t w e have th a t b ig city m entality like w e know w h ere its at...and people in the boonies and... people in T h u n d er Bay are v e ry condescending to that...first...they d o n 't understand th a t experience...that w ay of life ...and they think p eo p le m u s t be nu ts to live in die boonies... (Interview 10 W H IN Project W orker). This partic ipan t h ad liv ed in the region w hile sh e w as involved w ith W H IN b u t a t the tim e of the in terv iew , w as residing in T h u n d er Bay. She exp la ined th a t she felt she h a d an advan tage to understand ing th e v a rio u s perceptions (includ ing pow er relations)of ind iv iduals liv ing both in T h u n d er Bay an d o u t in the reg ion because she h a d experienced b o th locales. Similarly, these som etim es shared a n d som etim es distinctive regional d iscourses of identity w ere also replicated in the experiences of the w o m en 's health m ovem ent. I t is im portan t to d istingu ish betw een th e sh a red regional iden tity fe lt by the w om en involved in w o m e n 's health o rgan iz ing as unders tood in re la tion to th a t of the res t of the province; a n d the specific com m unity identities in re la tion to T hunder Bay as unders tood by the w om en. D epending o n th e context in w h ich the w om en w ere nego tia ting th e ir iden tity , d istinguish ing b etw een the reg ional iden tity and com m unity identity d iscourses became cen tra l fo r them . Som etim es, it was necessary to be seen rep resen ting the various com m unities they lived in an d a t other tim es, i t w as im portan t to be seen as a regional w om en 's ne tw ork w ith a regional identity . O ne exam ple w h ere it was im p o rtan t to p resen t a collective regional Reproduced with permission ot the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 identity w as w h e n a group of N o rth em w om en w ere w o rk in g as p a rt of the national steering com m ittee overseeing the im plem entation of the C anadian W om en's H ealth N etw ork (Interview 7 W H EP C om m unity R epresentative, W HIN Board M ember). In th is specific national context, it w as critical th a t northw estern Ontario w om en 's concerns be voiced. Because of the transien t n a tu re of the popu la tions liv ing in the region there is a strong n eed to develop a com m unity identity w ith in the sm aller tow ns. As w as explained by one participant, m an y o f the w om en liv ing in the sm aller com m unities w ere n o t orig inally from those areas. She referred to these w om en as 'transp lan ts ' an d stressed h o w vital an d im p o rtan t their com m unity com m itm ent w as to life in the small com m unity . She says. W e w ere k ind of d ra w n together by th a t (transp lan ted identity)...and to m e there was a real psychological fac to r because R ed Lake is a t th e e n d of the w orld ...h ighw ay 105 stops in Red Lake a n d there isn 't an y th in g beyond that., bush roads...F irst N ations C om m unities.. so once you are there.. .you a re a t hom e in y o u r tow n b u t you feel incredibly isolated...it's a tw o hou r drive ju st to get back to the trans- C anada...you have to ge t ideas flow ing a n d get things going... (Interview 10 W H IN Project W orker). She em phasized h o w com m unity organizing an d estab lish ing a collective identity w as essential to build ing a life in a small, iso lated com m unity. Hence, her involvem ent w ith w om en 's o rgan iz ing around health a n d o ther com m unity issues w as an im p o rtan t link for her to he r com m unity. T h ro u g h participation in her ow n com m unity, she is able to foster w id e r participation in th e region. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 A nother W H IN m em ber explained h o w it w as for the exact opposite reason she becam e invo lved w ith th e regional w o m en 's health netw ork. I w as a new com er to this com m unity ...and I w asn 't rea lly o u t there .it w as a really difficult transition to m ake...com ingfrom #*#*# to th is sm all, very insulated com m unity.. You know , I w as a n outsider...I'm still an outsider...I th in k in a lot of p eo p le 's eyes because I 'm n o t from here .you know. I've liv ed here for ten years a n d its still, "w h a t's she doing th a t for? She's no t from here.." A nd y o u know... c a n 't I embrace fliis com m unity as m ine? (Interview 5 W HIN Board M em ber). In her situation , a collective iden tity based in h e r com m unity is difficult to find. She explains th a t even tho u g h she has lived in the com m unity for a n u m b er of years, she continues to be seen as a n outsider. As a resu lt, she builds a n d m aintains a com m unity iden tity by participating in the regional organizing efforts of the W om en's H ealth In form ation N etw ork (W HIN). She w as able to n u rtu re a regional identity m ore strongly th an a com m unity id en tity a lthough she w as th e com m unity represen tative fo r W HIN. The im pact of her reg ional W HIN identity w as felt in her com m unity because of the w o rk she did a ro u n d w om en 's health. In th is case and in contrast to th e w om an m entioned above, it w a s th rough her reg ional identity that she w as able to b u ild a com m unity identity. B uilding a com m unity identity for th is w o m an follows h er com m itm ent to the region. W ith the skills an d know ledge g a in ed th rough her involvem ent w ith W H IN she is able to initiate a separate identity fro m W HIN w ithin h e r com m unity. For exam ple, she s ta rted a com m unity group th a t began to lobby for changes in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 area o f ch ildb irth^ as w ell, as estab lish ing a com m unity d rop -in cen tre for teens^^. From the beginning , th e w o m en who organized a ro u n d health in n o rth w este rn O ntario saw th e im portance of having a presence in th e region. They d id th is by w ork ing w ith th e ta rg e t com m unities as laid o u t in the o rig inal W HEP proposal. They w ent even fu r th e r th a n w as expected by h iring reg iona l com m unity representatives. As tim e p ro g ressed , th e im portance of sharing the decision m aking process across the reg ion becam e even m ore clear. This w as ach ieved th ro u g h a s tro n g reg ional Board of w o m en , all w o rk ing tow ards th e sam e goal of p rov id ing in fo rm ation an d resources to w o m en across northw estern O ntario . In m aintaining bo th th e W HEP and the W H IN projects, a collective regional iden tity w as reinforced th ro u g h their com m itm ent to w o m e n 's health. There w as a B oard a n d it h a d representation from all over n o rth w este rn O ntario...like a w om an from Nipigon, a w o m a n from Schreiber, a w o m an from M anitouw adge, a w om en from Red Lake, Pickle Lake...all th o se places.. A tikokan, Kenora... (In terv iew 3 W HEP C oord ina to r, W H IN Project W orker). The im portance th a t th e w o m en placed on the reg ional rep re sen ta tio n on w h e n 's Board was strong . This sense of regionalism a n d com m itm en t to 36 This p a rtic ip an t initiated CRIBS - the Com m ittee to Re-Instate a B irth ing System in N ip igon , O ntario because o f h e r involvem ent w ith W HIN. 37 She a lso app lied for and w a s g ran te d th ree year p ilo t project fu n d in g from the H ealth P rom otion Branch, H e a lth a n d W elfare C ^ a d a fo r a teen d ro p in centre in N ip igon . The funding w a s n o t ren ew ed after the th ree year p e rio d a n d the teen cen tre w as closed. Reproduced with permission ot the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 com m unity possessed by the w o m en b ound them together and gave th em a sense of a collective iden tity . O ne p a rtic ip a n t explained, W H IN w as really reg io n a l and to be honest, I th ink it w as the only reg ional B oard th a t I was on., th ey m ade a com m itm ent to b e in g in the region...you know... it w a sn 't alw ays in T h u n d e r Bay... our m eetings could be anyw here.. A nd th ey were... (Interview 12 W HEP C om m unity R epresen tative and W H IN Board M em ber). The ded ica tion by the w o m en to existing as a reg iona l Board m ean t th a t the w om en had to trave l th ro u g h o u t th e reg ion to a ttend m eetings, m ini-conferences and w orkshops. For the m ost p a rt, th is w as described as p ositive because it gave the w om en an o p p o rtu n ity to see the v a rio u s com m unities a n d m eet w ith new w o m en w ho w ere in te res ted in som e aspec t o f w om en 's health. T here were also negative aspects to the travel. D angerous ro ad s , the lengthy d istances betw een com m unities, added car m ileage an d tim e aw ay fro m fam ilies w ere all fac to rs that the w o m en h a d to consider w h e n travelling for W H IN . Childcare issues a lso arose and for som e of the wom en, trave lling to m eetings m ean t bringing sm all babies w ith th em (the w om en w ere breastfeeding) o r leav ing the ir older ch ild ren a t hom e w ith p a rtn e rs o r o ther caregivers. W hen d iscussing these constraints, i t w as possible to see h o w overlapping in d iv id u a l identities a n d roles such as m o th e r and W H IN m em ber in tertw ined them selves and in so m e cases, caused conflicting notions ab o u t individual id en tity fo r som e of the w om en . The com m itm en t to regional rep resen ta tion evolved from the experiences of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 138 the w om en involved w ith W H EP an d a shared u n d e rs tan d in g th a t th e com m unities across no rthw estern O ntario w ere distinct. There w as also the understand ing th a t individual com m unities w o u ld have specific com m unity health issues w h ich required solutions th a t w ou ld n eed to come from w ith in the com m unity. O n e W HIN Board m em ber explained. E very com m unity is un ique w ith their o w n needs an d th a t 's w hy it w as so im portant to h av e inside rep resen ta tion in stead of having the o u tside com ing in a n d saying this is th e w ay it is (In terv iew 7 W H IN B oard M em ber a n d W H IN Project W orker). The w om en w ere aw are of th e differences am ong the com m unities and firom experience, k n ew th a t u ltim ately , if change w as to occur, i t h ad to come fro m within. This com m itm ent to the reg ion developed as the w o m en 's groups evolved from W HEP to W HIN. W ith WHEN how ever, it w as o f u tm o st im portance a n d solidified the w o m en 's collective identity. W HIN m em bers h ad a concrete understand ing a n d analysis of w o m e n 's health issues in relation to liv ing in the region. A s n o ted in C hap ter Two, th e isolation and the distance be tw een com m unities an d to w n s w as significant a n d it affected the h ea lth inform ation a n d services available. This isolation fro m inform ation a n d services in sp ired W H IN 's regional com m itm en t to ensuring th a t any w om an liv ing in the h in te rlan d could have access to b o th in itiating change through W H IN m em bership, o r by participating in w orkshops an d conferences. This strong com m itm ent to th e reg ion fostered th e s tro n g sense of a collective Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 identity felt b y W H IN m em bers. I. G endered R egional Identity As n o ted in C hap ter Two, n o rth w este rn O ntario has in th e p ast relied on resource extraction as its p rim ary source of econom ic w ell-being. A lthough the m ajority o f jobs are n o w found in th e service sector of the econom y there remains a strong m asculin ist iden tity for m e n liv ing in northw estern O n ta rio because m any of the better pay ing jobs a re found in the mills, m ines and elevato rs (Dunk: 45). In tu rn , w om en 's identities in no rthw estern O ntario have largely b e en defined in relation to the ir roles as su ppo rte rs , caregivers an d n u rtu rers to m e n w orking in industry (W all 1993). This in part, h a s been a reflection of the lack of satisfactory em ploym ent opportun ities for w om en . As well, it indicates a g e n d e re d discourse w hich reinforces and regulates m ale an d fem ale roles. In m any instances, industry d irec ted w hen, w here and h o w com m unities w ere established (Wall 1993). S im ultaneously, the ideology o f th e nuc lear family w as reinforced. This w as advan tageous to in d u stry because it w a s assum ed that com pany m en w ou ld be m ore co n ten t in their jobs w ith their fam ilies living close by an d there w ou ld be less need to travel in to the larger tow ns a n d cities (Wall 1993). H ow ever, there w as little considera tion of h o w w om en liv in g in the single­ industry tow ns w ou ld experience th e ir life. As w as explained to m e by one of the w om en w ho w as w ork ing as a social w orker in a sm all com m unity , ... I w as a single m o m and everybody else w a s m arried... a n d this is w h a t you did... you got m arried . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 y o u lived in a b u n g a lo w an d you had fou r k ids... a n d if y o u d id n 't you w e re w eird... It w as like g o in g back to the 1950's a n d I rem em ber one day , th e m in ing com pany w as ce leb ra ting the m ining fam ily a n d o n the f ro n t page of th e paper... guess w hat... th e fam ily - m om , d a d and th e fo u r k ids w ith the little b u n g a lo w in the back (In terv iew 3 O riginal W HEP C oord inator). W om en assum ed the trad itiona l ro les of housewife a n d m other a n d the m ale identity of w o rk e r o r 'b read w in n e r ' w as reinforced. T his s tro n g sense of a sexual division of labou r w as the n o rm , a n d often continues to b e in m any of th e sm aller com m unities (W all 1993). B eing d ifferen t w as d ifficu lt because th e n y ou w ere view ed as abnorm al o r w e ird ' a s w as explained by th is partic ipan t. Such strong ly ingrained " trad itio n a l" values have developed over th e course of several generations (Wall 1993). As Fraser (1992) suggests, it is possib le in these analytical instances to w im ess th e m ultip le social d iscourses w h ich dev elo p ed in regard to, an d reflect the specific va lues authorizing su c h a g en d ered d iv ision of labour and social life. These g en d ered regional va lues a re o ften difficult to com prehend for those w ho m ak e the transition to sm all co m m u n ity from a larger u rban centre. O ne partic ipan t exp la ined how she felt u p o n m ov ing from a large urban centre in to a sm aller com m unity , I look back now a n d I d o n 't know ho w I d id it... because I am a feminist... I m o v ed into a sm all to w n w ith a b u n ch of rednecks y o u know ... really... I m ea n rea lly o ld fash ioned values... I sa id th a t w hen I s te p p e d off the p lane I felt like I h a d step p ed back in tim e fo rty years... an d I w as do ing no th ing ... I m ean there w a s no th ing here th a t I could do... I t w a sn 't like I cou ld sa y w ell. I 'll ju s t a p p ly for all th ese jobs... w hat jobs? I co u ld be a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 141 clerk a t C an ad ian T ire o r a check o u t cashier as Zeckner's... a n d th a t w a sn 't really fo r m e, so... I basically becam e th is housewife... w a itin g for m y husband to com e hom e... (Interview 5 W H IN Board M ember) This excerp t show s how g en d ered discourses are d e p e n d e n t on the specific socio­ cu ltu ral context. Further, th is w o m an is clearly able to a rticu la te how her iden tity shifts a n d is flu id in the tw o situational locations she finds herself. A lack o f em ploym ent oppo rtun ities for w o m e n in these com m unities is typical (H eald 1991), and in m an y cases, w om en have no choice bu t to becom e d ep en d en t o n m en for th e ir econom ic well-being (W all 1993). C ontinually reinforced, these gendered econom ic roles for m en a n d w om en contribute to the construction of indiv idual iden tities an d collective reg iona l identities. To live ou tside these boundaries can b e reflected u p o n in a negative sense. For the w o m an w ho w as a single m other, th is difference im pacted on h e r indiv idual iden tity an d how she w as perceived by o thers in her com m unity. A lthough w om en w ere confined to the roles of w ives and m others in the regional single industry tow ns, w om en in northw estern O ntario actively resisted these n a rro w prescriptions b y partic ipating in en d eav o u rs w hich m ade their com m unities a b e tte r place to live. By instigating changes in the social landscape they w ere able to assum e a n d asse rt som e control over their ind iv idual an d collective situations. The W H EP project an d the w orkshop k its w ere developed in an effort to em pow er regional w om en to instigate change b o th a t the ind iv idua l Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 142 level and the co m m u n ity /reg io n a l level. To do so, th e k its w ere structured to p resen t a b roader con tex t for situa ting w om en 's lives in a n effort to show w om en th a t there w ere choices available to them . O ne W HEP coord ina to r explained. W e w a n ted to look a t th e b ig picture, a n d th e w hole context in w hich w om en w ere situated in no rthw estern O ntario ... an d then w o rk from there as a com m unity th a t w om en needed to g e t together and s ta r t to identify w h a t th ey needed in th e ir ow n com m unities, to help them be healthy , to h e lp their families to b e healthy... y ou know , so the kits w e re there to give th e m a broader context... to give them a sense tha t this is w h a t I can do... th is is w h a t m y com m unity can do, th is is w h a t m y neighbours and friends can do... (In terv iew 3 W HEP C oordinator, W H IN Project W orker). The WHEP coord inators began the p rocess of educating a n d em pow ering reg ional w om en through inform ation. They also w ere able to experience northw estern O ntario as a region. As follows. V alidating w om en 's experiences and w o m e n 's lives.. A nd ge tting to know no rthw estern O ntario ...gettm g to see h o w w om en in no rthw estern O ntario lived , getting to know th e geography... especially w ith W H EP, w e go t to travel all over and w ith W HIN... w e a lso did ... and learn ing h o w w om en really live and w h a t th ey do and va lida ting all th a t tim e th a t w en t in to their experiences... (Interview 1 W HEP C oord inator, W H IN Board M em ber). This approach to b u ild in g com m unity an d em pow ering w om en affected how the w om en perceived a n d constructed th e ir ow n identities. A s sta ted by Fraser (1992), "g ro u p form ation involves shifts in peoples social iden tities an d therefore also in their relation to d iscourse" (179), A no ther coordinator com m ented . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 143 W om en really d id n 't have choices an d w e w ere like th is b rea th of fresh air... you know ... you can do so m eth ing here... I still rem em ber those Cabin Fever w orkshops... w om en ju s t flocked to those you know... th ere w ere dozens of w o m en around h e re w ho w ere very b r ig h t a n d they d id n 't have jobs... a n d they w ere a t ho m e w ith th e ir k ids go ing nuts... a n d so w e rang the bell in w om en 's m inds... (In terv iew 1 W H EP C oord inato r, W H IN B oard M em ber). As reg ional w o m en becam e involved w ith the activ ities of the w om en's health g roups, an d as W H EP evolved in to W HIN, ind iv idua l identities w ere transform ed fro m those of passive actors con ten t w ith the ir s itu a tio n to w om en creating active form s of resistance th ro u g h the new know ledge a n d inform ation acquired. Resistance by the w om en sh ifted the prevailing gendered regional identities so th a t w om en cou ld construct n e w iden tity d iscourses, b o th individual an d collective. As described by one W H IN B oard M em ber, I th ink of m yself in th a t tim e a n d it w as exciting... w h e n I th in k ab o u t the g roup of w o m e n th a t cam e to g e th er a n d the conunonalities be tw een u s an d w h a t w e w ere ab le to do as a group... the p o w e r of w ork ing to g e th er a n d w e w ere able to m ake change... and w ork to g e th er a n d lobby... a n d em pow er each o ther an d m ake o u r co m m u n ities b e tte r p laces to live... in c lu d in g ourselves... w e are m uch be tte r people because of it... It w a s a p re tty pow erfu l experience... fighting th ings like a lack o f good jobs, and good h o u sin g and isolation... all th o se lacks... w o rk ing together w e can initiate a lo t of change... (In terv iew 7 W H EP C om m unity R epresentative, W H IN B oard M em ber). Indiv idual w o m e n 's iden tities sh ifted in re la tio n to their roles as housew ives and Reproduced with permission ot the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 m others and resistance to th e conventional g e n d e r roles evolved as th e w om en became m ore involved w ith th e health o rgan izing . These ind iv idual discursive changes in tu rn , im pacted o n th e collective id en tity of the groups. The reg ional e lem en t in th is case s tu d y is a n im p o rtan t link in u nders tand ing h o w both the w om en 's in d iv id u a l and collective identities w ere sh a p ed an d re­ shaped over the course o f th e tw elve years. The w o m en expressed their perceptions of regionalism as being essen tia l to how they co u ld define them selves a n d how they w ere able to organize as d iscu ssed in C hap te r Three. Furtherm ore, th e m ultiple regional discourses in fluencing h o w the w om en defined them selves dem onstra te h o w pow er shifted an d w as relational to the specific contexts in w h ich identities w ere nego tiated (Fraser 1992). 4.5 FEM IN IST ID EN TITY The con ten t o f th e term s like 'fem in ism ' a n d 'fem inist' seem s self-evident, som ething th a t can be taken for g ranted . By n o w , i t seem s to m e, th e assum ption that the m ean ing of fem inism is 'o b v io u s ' needs to be challenged. I t h as becom e an obstacle to understand ing fem inism , in its d iversity a n d in its differences, and in its specificity as w ell (Delm ar 1994). F rom the beginning, W H A G m em bers, W H E P coordinators an d com m unity representatives and W H IN m em bers aim ed to em p o w er all w om en th ro u g h the provision of health in fo rm ation a n d resources in n o rth w es te rn Ontario. W hile these w om en w ere actively res is tin g trad itional m ed ica l discourses a n d form ing alternative discourses a ro u n d health an d h e a lth care, the w om en w ere also Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145 developing collective discourses a ro u n d their evolving g roups ' identities. In m an y w ays it seem s fairly obvious th a t all th ree of the w om en's g ro u p s - W HAG, W H EP, an d W H IN w ere fem inist. W HAG m em bers explicitly labelled them selves as a fem inist collective and all w ere d irectly tied to an a lternative w o m en 's com m un ity /m ovem en t in T hunder Bay th rough various capacities. W HEP b eg an in 1982 w ith fairly explicit fem inist ideals an d coordinators w ere h ired on the basis of their fem inist orien tation and perspective (Ramsey 1984). To the ex ten t th a t W HIN sa w w om en 's health as b o th a social and political issue and then strove to advocate fo r change in the specific a rea of w om en 's h e a lth they too, can be v iew ed as fem inist. H ow ever, as W HIN p rog ressed there w a s a g rea t deal of tension and conflict am o n g the w om en as to w h e th e r their collective identity w as fem inist. As w as exp la ined in one of the in terv iew s w ith two o f the W H IN Board m em bers, "W HEP h a d been fem inist b u t w ith W H IN , fem inism h a d becom e a bad w o rd " (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinators, W H IN Board M em bers). These two W H IN m em bers th o u g h t th a t it w as because w o m en from the sm aller com m unities d id n o t w a n t to be associated w ith anything fem in ist w hich could th en be in terpreted as pro-choice (In terv iew 1 WHEP C oordinators, W HIN B oard M embers). The pro-life/pro-choice d eb a te^ w as a contested issue for m any in the 38 The p ro-life / pro-choice debate is one w h ich comes u p continuously w hen northw estern O ntario w om en m eet to discuss w om en's h ea lth in the region. Recently, I partic ipa ted in an O n tario W om en 's H ealth N e tw ork (OW hN) Regional M eeting a n d the issue a rose agcdn w ith sim ilar sen tim ents being echoed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 reg ion o f northw estern O ntario . This m o st likely resulted from th e s tro n g family values held by those liv ing in the reg ion a n d the validation of m o th e rh o o d as the p rim ary contribution o f n o rth w este rn O n ta rio women. Q uestions a ttem p tin g to deal w ith th e difficulty of de fin ing fem inism both in term s of an indiv idual id en tity a n d a collective identity invo lved w ith the day to day ta sk of runn ing the w o m e n 's o rgan iza tion w ere m ulti-layered a n d complex. This com plexity arose fro m the w om en 's m u ltip le fem inist o rien ta tions an d the discourses w hich w ere in circu lation in n o rth w este rn Ontario o n rad ica l, liberal and hum an ist standpoints. In the interview s, I challenged the partic ipan ts to define fem inism . Several of the w om en h ad a fairly defin itive exp lanation of fem inism a n d sp o k e w ithout hesitation. The responses v a ried a ro u n d com m on themes: a fem in ist is som eone (could be male) w ho tries to im prove w o m en 's lives; a fem inist is som eone w ho is concerned w ith process; a n d a fem inist is a w are th a t the personal is political. These m ultip le fem inist d iscourses in w hich the w o m en were o p era tin g illustra te how ind iv idual identities w ere being constructed th rough a p lu rality o f d iscourses as ou tlined in Fraser's (1992) m odel. Specific q u o tes dem onstrating these them es are as follows, 1. A fem in ist I th in k is a w om an , a lthough there m ay be as to those heard in the in terv iew s. W om en once again, w ere su g g estin g th a t w om en living in the reg ion d o n o t w an t to participate in w o m en 's o rgan iz ing efforts if a pro-choice s tan d is be ing taken (February, 2001). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 m en w ith fem in ist inclinations, b u t I th in k th a t a fem inist is a w o m a n w h o works tow ards th e be tterm en t o f w om en in society (Interview 3 O rig inal W H EP C oordinator). 2. Y ou find o u t w h a t k in d of fem inist y o u a re w h en y o u a re w orking w ith o th e r fem inists (In terv iew 6 O riginal W H A G m em ber). 3 .1 th ink th a t fem in ism is a very personal decision. I a m a fem inist because as a w om an there a re issues th a t affect m e because I am a wom an... because of m y sex... a n d that's w h y I w as in terested in W HIN... I feel tha t a s a w om an th e re are a lo t of things tha t cou ld be done to im prove w o m en 's lives (Interview 7 W H EP C om m unity R epresentative a n d W H IN Board M em ber). It is fair to assum e that each of th e w om en h ad d ifferen t u n d e rly in g reasons for choosing to define fem inism in h e r o w n specific way. T he m ore rad ical orientations w ere exp ressed by those w h o w ere interested in process, as h ig h lig h ted in the second quote. Liberal fem in is t concerns in the first ex ce rp t w ere c en tred around equality. N o t all com ing a t th e ir fem inism (s) firom the sam e place how ever, each had in her p as t experiences w h ich led th e m to her ow n personal definition. For th e th ird w om an q u o ted above, there w as a n blending of b o th the rad ica l an d liberal orientations. O n ly one w om an chose n o t to define fem inism . C om m on th read s while no t expressed identically, su rfaced th roughou t the in terview s. In term s of the w om en 's collective identities, th ere w as a d eg ree o f shared understand ing th a t a fem in ist w o rk ed tow ards b e tte rin g w o m en 's position in society an d fu rther, that w o m en experienced oppression (tha t w o rd w a s n o t used) because of the ir sex. Further, th ere w as agreem ent th a t n o t only w o m e n could be Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 fem inists. Finally, i t w as also ex p la in ed that w om en 's issues needing a tten tio n w o u ld surface from personal experiences. For all of th e w om en, the act of sharing personal stories and experiences (consciousness-raising th ro u g h the w orkshop kits) led to som e k ind of action, a t least, th a t w as the p u rp o se of the kits. All of the w om en in terv iew ed discussed the negative connotations associated w ith the w ord fem inist. O ne p a rtic ip a n t explained o u tr ig h t th a t she d id n o t w an t to discuss it a t all d u rin g the in te rv iew . As was ex p la in ed earlier by tw o of the original W HEP coordinators, fo r w o m e n living in the sm aller com m unities ta lk ing ab o u t fem inism w as som eth ing th a t m any w om en w ere ju s t no t open too. This aversion to discussion of fem inism m ay have resulted fro m th e strong, stereotypical notions of w ha t a fem inist person ified (radicalism). In one w om an 's explanation of w h y W HIN h ad form ed, she to u ch ed o n the developm ent o f fem inism in the sixties a n d talked about h o w those w o m e n , w ho believed in gender inequities, w ere perceived. It w as th e really ea rly days, and you w ere accused of being a b ra bu rner o r a w om an 's libber... y o u know ... all those th ings that if y o u tr ie d to voice anyth ing ... I m ean, I certainly d id n o t w a n t to be on the receiv ing end of that... Being pa in ted w ith th a t brush... Yes... But w hen th is o rgan iza tion happened a n d w e as w om en came to realize th a t w h e n you organize as a group, w hen y o u p u t those th in g s in writing... w h e n y o u d o n 't give up... w hen y ou focus yo u r energy even th o u g h you m ight have personal differences w ith the w o m an sitting beside you... it w as a v e ry em pow ering tim e (Interview Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 8 W H IN Board M em ber a n d Project W orker). This w om an w as conscious of the stereotypical view of fem in ism how ever, she also recognized th a t w hen w om en cam e together to do w ork , as th rough her ow n personal experience w ith W H IN , there w as an overw helm ing feeling of be ing em pow ered b o th as indiv iduals a n d as a group of w om en . T hrough her o w n experiences of be ing actively invo lved she w itnessed changes in herself and chose to w holehearted ly embrace a fem in ist identity. Later o n in the interview she explained th is personal evolu tion a n d as follows, I w as a flam ing fem inist... and now 1 th in k I am a hum anist... W h at do you m ea n b y h um anist? W hat I m ean by th a t is ju s t recognizing people... d o esn 't m atte r male, fem ale, relig ion, race, colour, w hatever... th a t there 's the ab ility in each of us to w o rk together tow ards com m on goals... to be good to one another... b u t there are also w eaknesses in all of us a n d so I m ean I d o n 't see it as one particu la r group being a n y better in any w ay than an o th e r particu lar group... I guess... I m ean that if you w o u ld have asked me th is ten years ago I w ould have sa id th a t w om en are sm arter... th ey 're kinder... and n o w I see u s all in a po t and w e 'v e all go t som e of those tra its in each of us... and in genera l you can find as w onderfu l a m ale feminist as a fem ale feminist... so I guess th a t 's w h a t I m ean by hum anist. In the course of h e r involvem ent, she recognized that the concep t of fem inism an d the act of be ing a fem inist is a b o u t m ore th an gender. A lth o u g h she came to h e r fem inist iden tity th rough her w o rk o n w om en 's health issues she w as aware th a t o ther social locations influence o n e 's position in the cu ltu ral m atrix of life. Sim ilar Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 to m an y w om en w ho liv ed th rough the second w ave of fem inism in th e late sixties a n d seventies, she in itially follow ed a radical fem in ist orientation w h ich contended g en d er oppression w as so le ly to blam e fo r w o m en 's inferior status. I t w as only after being involved w ith w o m e n 's organizing fo r a num ber of years th a t she began to u n d e rs tan d the com plexity su rround ing fem in ism an d identity. She explains, 1 th ink th a t fem inism s ta rted o u t as a w ay of w om en asserting them selves bu t also inc luded in tha t w as a lo t of anger to w ard s men... and n o w I th in k tha t fem inism is a w ay of respecting h u m an beings fo r their place in this w orld o r fo r w hatever th e ir s ituation is... a n d so, I still call m yse lf a feminist... because I am so p ro u d of th e w ord a n d I 'm so p ro u d to be a fem inist... and I w an t to u se th a t w o rd because I th in k it 's very strong , inclusionary w ord ... But a t the sam e tim e because of its past it can be very m isunderstood ... b u t I also th ink th a t for every fem in is t there 's p robab ly a different definition (Interview 8 W H IN Board M em ber). This partic ipan t w as a s tu te ly aw are of the politics of fem inist iden tity and recogn ized tha t her o w n n o tio n of fem inism w as constantly shifting. The concept of h u m an ism versus fem in ism w hich she m en tions is a tension w h ich still rem ains in id en tity politics (Soper 1997). O ne of the tensions fo r fem inist th eo ry w ith a hum anist s tan d p o in t is th a t it collapses the category o f w om en, and the differences of w om en fro m m en into a single g roup. In m y o w n experiences of o rgan iz ing a round w o m en 's issues in T h u n d er Bay I have often b een confronted w ith th e debate betw een h u m an ism and fem inism . Often, this tension appears upon iden tify ing as a fem inist. Typically, I am resisted by others w ith negative s tereo types of w hat a 'fem in is t' is (or is im ag ined to be) w ith an a rg u m e n t w hich Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 contends th e label of 'hum an ist' is m ore inclusive rather th an restrictive. It seem s that the label of fem inist con tinues to be a contested no tion for w om en in northw estern O ntario . A n add itional them e w hich em erged w h e n discussing definitions of fem inism was the asse rtio n of an essen tia l e lem ent to w om anhood. This notion of a n essential fem in ine has been challenged extensively in fem inist theory an d lite ra tu re (Spelman 1988). In no rthw estern O n tario w h ere conventional gender va lues abound, it is n o t su rp rising th a t w o m e n feel an essentia l connection to o ther w om en. One partic ipan t, a m other of fou r ch ild ren exp la ined w ith som e tension her feelings around a fem in ist identity, I believe tha t I am a fem inist, I believe th a t I do fem inist w ork... have a lw ays done fem in ist work... 1 do it w ith m y children, m y sons, m y daughters... I do i t in the com m unity... I carry th a t perspective w ith m e... so fem inism I th ink is a perspective... a n approach to life for un d ers tan d in g w o m en in a pa triarchal culture... it's a position of hyper-v ig ilance w here you are alw ays look ing a t th ings w ith a different, critical eye... O k... B ut I do believe th a t there is an essential... an essential quality to being a w o m an a n d I th in k th a t its som eth ing th a t can 't be spoken... like w h en y o u m eet ano ther w om an... it is som eth ing th a t is understood... an d 1 feel connected to w o m en in th a t w a y (Interview 11 O rig inal W HEP C oord inator). This pa rtic ip an t w as firm ly g ro u n d ed bo th personally and politically in h e r rad ical fem inist id en tity and she ap p ro ach ed the w o rld w ith a "critical lens", w hile Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 m aintaining her belief in a n essential w om an. This essentialism w as a strong feature of w om en 's orgem izing in no rthw estern O ntario as w ill be dem onstra ted later on in th is chapter w hen d iscussions o f difference w ill be addressed in the w om en 's health organizing. As w as characteristic of m ost w om en 's organizing a t th a t tim e (Pierson 1993), there was little discussion am ong the w om en involved w ith health organizing abou t issues of race, class a n d other areas of difference am ong th e w om en living in northw estern O ntario . A rguably, w h ite , m iddle-class w om en of the early second w ave m ovem ent assum ed that w o m en sh o u ld unite over gender inequalities unaw are th a t differences am ong w o m en including class a n d race were also substan tia l factors in oppression (Pierson 1993). Criticism from black w om en, lesbian w om en, o lder w om en, francophone an d first nations w om en in the early eighties challenged the w hite, m iddleclass w o m en of the second w ave on their priv ilege and biases in determ ining a fem in ist ag en d a (Pierson 1993). To assum e th a t g ender w as the one category of analysis in de term in ing w om en 's oppression w as a resu lt of race an d class privilege o n th e p a rt of w om en organizing during this p e rio d of the second w ave. The argum ent w as th a t there was no th ing essential to be ing a w om an. Rather, all social locations overlapped an d contributed to the various fo rm s of oppression experienced by w o m en (Pierson 1993). The idea of a n essential w om an connects w om en (in particular, w hite w om en) for various reasons (Spelman 1988). O ften, the notion o f w om en 's essential Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 being is b o u n d u p w ith w om en 's rep roductive capabilities: w om en 's 'n a tu ra l ' o r biological p u rp o se (Spelm an 1988). P ow erfu l, rom antic im ag ery is conjured u p to characterize w o m en 's experiences w ith reproduction. In northw estern O n tario w om en's g roups, reproductive issues w e re central w ith a s tro n g focus o n op tions su rround ing ch ildb irth . These discourses facilitated the w om en's collective identities. M any of th e w om en involved w ith w om en 's health o rganizing recognized th a t w om en becam e em pow ered th ro u g h inform ation sh a rin g or consciousness- raising, a u n iq u e ly fem inist process (Griffin C ohen 1993). W HIN w as in correspondence w ith several other w o m en 's groups across C anada including th e Vancouver W om en 's H ealth Collective; the W om en's Self-Help N etw ork in Cam pbell R iver, B.C.; the W om en's H ealth C linic's in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan a n d W innipeg, M anitoba; the H ealthsharing Collective in Toronto , Ontario; th e W om en's H ea lth Project in Kingston, O ntario ; and the W om en 's Health E ducation Project in N ew fo u n d lan d and L abrador to nam e a few. Exchanges w ith these groups varied in scope an d nature. In som e instances, resources around particu lar health issues w e re shared , in others organizational in fo rm ation regarding struc tu re and process w e re exchanged, and in o thers w om en belong ing to these various groups w ere form ally invited to partic ipa te as key note speakers a t the reg ional conferences h e ld in northw estern O ntario . There w as a strong com m itm ent o n the p a rt of the W H IN Board to ne tw ork Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 n o t only w ith in th e reg ion bu t on a b roader, national scale. This w as fu rth e r evidenced by W H IN 's involvem ent w ith the C anadian W om en 's H ealth N e tw o rk initiative b eg u n in 1987, form ally fu n d e d in 1989 th ro u g h H ealth an d W elfare C anada (T udiver 1994). W HIN B oard m em bers w a n ted to know w h a t o th e r C anadian w o m en w ere doing in the a rea of w om en 's health . Being connected to o ther w om en 's g ro u p s outside of the reg io n lessened the regional isolation fe lt by the w om en invo lved and gave the w o m en a b roader con tex t for situ a tin g th e ir collective identities. The n o tio n of fem inist iden tity is u ltim ately com plex and overlaps w ith issues a round fem in is t organizing as d iscussed in C hap ter Three. A num ber o f the w om en in terv iew ed rem ained hesitan t u p o n being asked to contem plate h o w W H IN w as as a fem in ist organization. U nderstand ing w h y som e of the w o m en w ere opposed to th e label and o thers w ere n o t is im portan t, particularly w h e n factoring in the specific regional iden tity of no rthw estern O ntario. W hen asked abou t a collective fem in ist identity one W H IN m em ber com m ented. W e tried to be... it w a sn 't operating fro m top- do w n . everybody w as so r t o f equal in their opinion... th ey em pow ered w o m en to fully partic ipa te an d be eq u a l . th e w om en w h o w ere involved celebrated ev ery th in g th a t they d id ., a n d th a t w as im p o rtan t and em p o w erin g for w om en a n d for a lo t of w o m e n that w as g rea t because tha t ju s t d o e sn 't h appen in th e ir ow n com m unities and for som e w om en tha t d o e sn 't happen in th e ir w ork because th ey are housew ives a n d not w orking ... so the ph ilosophy w as there (In terv iew 5 W HIN B oard M em ber). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 This w om an recognizes certain them es, such as em p o w erm en t and celebration of w om en in W H IN 's collective iden tity w hich she a ttrib u tes to a fem inist ph ilosophy. She acknow ledges the im portance tha t W H IN p laced on understand ing the specificities of w o m en 's lives a n d experiences. L ater on in the interview how ever, she com m ents o n the tensions w h ich arose from those experiences. She explains. B u t i t w asn 't alw ays... w e are all fallible... an d there w ere tim es w hen peop le w ould ge t in the w ay...the u to p ia w as that everyone w as equal a n d everybody 's w o rk in g together, one is em pow ering the other, b u t in rea lity tha t's h a rd to do...all the tim e... so th ere was ten sion (In terv iew 5 W H IN Board Member). The specific m andate of p ro v id in g h e a lth in fo rm ation and resources to w om en in the reg io n also caused a degree of tension fo r m any of the m em bers. The W H IN Board w a s n o t w ithout its philosophical question ing , an d as was exp lained in the interview s, tw o questions cam e u p repeatedly: w as the group anyth ing m ore than an in fo rm ation service? W as W H IN a fem inist organization? Some of th e w om en p referred to see them selves as lobbyists while o thers saw them selves m ore in term s of educators. Some of the w o m en claim ed early on in the interview th a t th ey w ere fem inist. The view th a t th e w om en w ere educators a n d inform ation p ro v id ers is an im p o rtan t concept because m any of the w om en firm ly believed tha t in fo rm ation w as an em pow erm ent tool fo r w om en. W hen asked ab o u t w h a t W HIN w as one participant explained. There w as alw ays a n ongoing debate ab o u t w h a t w e w ere... w e w ere a n advocating g ro u p . o r w h a t we Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 w ere...and the w hole idea beh ind be in g seen as an u p fro n t fem in ist organization...and w e said, no w e are not. .w hat w e a re is small peas an d w e ju st go off of inform ation... the most... the easiest w ay to em pow er a n y w o m a n i s t o g i v e t h e m m o r e inform ation...w hatever level they are a t in their developm ent a n d understanding... so w e w ent w ith inform ation (Interview 1 W HEP C oord inator, W H IN Board M ember). Interestingly , the no tion of fem inism and the ten sion experienced w ith the w ider collective iden tity of seeing them selves or the o rgan ization as fem inist surfaces alm ost im m ediately w hen asked abou t the origins o f W HIN. There is a n underly ing assum ption th a t em pow ering w om en th rough educa tion and consciousness-raising experiences is im portan t how ever, for som e of the w o m en there is an a lm ost explicit denial th a t the no tion of em pow erm ent is b o u n d u p w ith any type o f fem inist ideology. This collective understand ing of th e pow erfu lness of consciousness- raising experiences is dem onstra ted later on in the in terv iew w hen the partic ipan t says. A nd then once w e started train ing w o m en in this very basic concept (popu lar education) a n d they started do ing it and th en they said, the fu n is over...well then... you could see th a t they w ould be an g ry an d they w ould say, this is chang ing m y life..Tm d ifferen t than I was... (Interview 1 W H EP C oordinator, W HIN Board M ember). She ind icates th a t p rov id ing w o m en w ith health in form ation an d skills in popu lar education w as affecting substan tia l individual change w ith regard to health as experienced by the W H IN B oard m em bers and com m unity representatives. Y et, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 157 tensions su rro u n d in g the no tion of W H IN as having a collective fem inist iden tity w ere equally as strong . O ne w om an exp la ined w hen asked if W H IN was a fem in ist organization. O h definitely! I th in k so... m aybe som e of th e w o m en d id n 't feel com fortable w ith th a t term b u t th e w hole concep t of w h a t th ey w ere doing w as fem in ist (In terv iew 7 W HEP C om m unity Representative, W H IN B oard M ember). Yet another p a rtic ip an t spoke in fru s tra tio n a n d disbelief w h e n I m entioned som e of the negative responses I had received in ask ing about W H IN 's fem inist iden tity in northw estern O ntario . She says. L ike w h a t is this about... I t 's ab o u t w o m en 's health , w o rk in g to m ake better com m unities and b e tte r lives for w om en... W hat's the p ro b lem here? It's n o t fem inist... com e on., you k n o w it is! (Interview 3 W H EP C oord inator) A large p a r t o f the difficulty experienced by som e o f th e w om en involved w ith the o rgan iz ing efforts of W H IN w a s th e constant d en ia l o f it n o t being seen as fem inist. W H IN h a d evolved from W H E P an d W HAG. B oth o f these groups h a d begun as d istinctly grassroots, fem in is t w om en o rgan iz ing a s a sm all g roup of w om en from the w o m en 's com m unity in T h under Bay. Som e o f these w om en h a d experience w o rk in g collectively a n d u s in g a fem inist p rocess th rough th e ir involvem ent w ith th e Northern W oman Journal a n d the W o m en 's C entre in T h under Bay. W hen the o rig inal four coord inato rs h a d been hired fo r th e W HEP project by W HAG m em bers, i t h ad been explicitly s ta ted that a fem in is t orientation w as Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 necessary. A t first, th is s trong collective fem in ist identity w as possible. H ow ever, the desire to h o ld o n to the fem inist id en tity slow ly evolved in to som eth ing else w hich led to tensions a nd struggles o v e r th e collective id en tity of W HIN. This w as explained by one of th e original W H EP coordinators. N o t everybody w as com ing a t it from the sam e place...because 1 th in k a lo t abou t fem in ism is u n d e rs tan d in g things like classism ..and sexism , racism , h e t e r o s e x i s m a n d t h e r e w a s n ' t t h a t understanding ....so I d o n 't th in k that ev ery b o d y h ad th a t political analysis o n th e Board o r th e fro n t line w orkers. .. (Interview 11 W H EP C oordinator). Essential to theo riz ing fem inist iden tity w hether in d iv id u a l or collective, is u n d e rs tan d in g h o w th e m ultip le locations th a t m ake u p a w om an 's iden tity are overlapp ing a n d m ulti-layered (Fraser 1992). These layers include, a lth o u g h n o t exclusively: race, ethnicity , class, sexuality , age and ablism . W ith each of these m ultiplicities of iden tity there are layers of pow er w h ic h are p layed o u t in interaction w ith o thers, w ith in the o rgan iza tion and in th e various com m unities (Fraser 1992). A lth o u g h n o t fo rthcom ing in the in terv iew s w h en asked ab o u t diversity a n d difference b o th w ithin th e o rgan ization and in th e com m unities som e of the w o m en recognized tha t W H IN w as not, and d id n o t actively m ake m an y attem pts to conceptualize and d iscuss differences. As, one w om an sta ted q u ite m atter of factiy, I th in k in the w ork th a t th ey w ere doing I d o n 't th ink th a t i t really m ade m uch d ifference that w e d id n 't have som eone... I d o n 't know ... m aybe the native concerns... w e re n 't addressed.. I th in k cu ltu ra l differences m igh t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 n o t have b een addressed w ith W HIN... w e were all white, m iddleclass w om en y o u know ... (Interview 5 W H IN B oard M ember). Further, there w ere unacknow ledged issues o f pow er th a t evolved th ro u g h o u t the w om en 's experiences o rgan iz ing W HIN. H ow ever, as one participant explained. W e w e re n 't th ink ing about it a s issues of pow er, w e w ere th in k in g o f it as issues of p o o r w om en against the system... (In terv iew 9 W HIN B oard M em ber a n d Project W orker). C haracteristic of w om en 's organizations in th e 1980s, understand ing h o w pow er p layed itself o u t w as com m only thought to be th a t pow er w as held by a certa in few ind iv iduals o r the state a n d th a t w om en o r w om en 's organizations w ere pow erless (Ristock 1991). For the m o s t part, notions of p riv ilege a n d pow er th a t resu lt from occupying certain social locations a t a m icro level w ere n o t conceptualized in the sam e term s as those p o w er relations existing a t the m acro level. L ater on in the in terv iew the sam e p artic ipan t explained h o w th ro u g h her experiences her u n d ers tan d in g of pow er re la tions had shifted. She said. W e probably h ad m ore p o w er th an w e knew we had...w e d ic in 't know that w e h a d any pow er... we though t w e w ere underpriv ileged, u n d e r whatever... and now th a t I 'v e lived a few years, taken a few courses, seen people from other countries... I 'm ju s t realizing how m uch p o w er I've always h ad b u t d id n 't even know it... (In terview 9 W HIN Board M em ber a n d Project W orker). M any facets of identity in c lu d in g pow er re la tions w ere constantly sh ifting as the w o m en organized them selves a round various pro jects over the course of th e tw elve Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 years. In part, the fem inist collective identity of W H IN w a s im plicitly u n d ers to o d as all o f the w om en w ho p artic ipa ted had a com m on goal of helping w o m en in northw estern O ntario access a n d understand health in fo rm ation specific to w om en 's needs. A lso, acknow ledged a n d understood w as th e fac t th a t the w om en w ere w ork ing w ith a n alternative s tru c tu re of o rganizing d ifferen t firom trad itiona l o rganizing practices. H ow ever, unreso lved tensions su rfaced w hen asked if the w om en w o u ld collectively iden tify themselves as fem inist. Thus, the collective identity of W H IN w as no t clearly defined w hich le d to tensions for m any of th e w om en w h o w ere w ork ing w ith in th is structure. 4.6 SU M M ARY All o f the w om en involved w ith the W HIN B oard h a d a strong shared sense of a reg ional identity . The w om en w h o had been invo lved w ith W HEP und ers to o d the im portance of sharing health inform ation an d reso u rces w ith wom en liv ing in the isolated com m unities of the n o rth w est region. T his com m itm ent to the reg io n w as p rom o ted as W H EP evolved in to WHIN. The reg iona l Board and w o rk ing w ith in the reg ion w as an im p o rtan t p a r t of the success o f m obilizing w om en to press for health changes in the ind iv idua l com m unities as w ell, in m ain tain ing a presence of health conscious w o m en in northw estern O n tario . H ow ever, the n o tio n tha t W H IN m ay have h ad a fem in ist identity w as m o re d ifficu lt to conceive. All o f the w o m en w ho w e re involved in h e a lth o rgan iz ing activities w ere com ing to W H IN w ith different defin itions of fem in ism a n d fro m different s ta rtin g Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 161 points. Som e of the w om en (those w ho had been invo lved w ith the W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee a n d the W H A G members) h a d been actively involved w ith other types of fem inist o rg an iz in g in T hunder Bay a n d h a d a s trong sense of fem inist iden tity . O ther w o m en h ad come to th e ir fem inism through th e ir invo lvem ent w ith the w ork o f W H EP an d W HIN, a n d fo r som e of the w om en, iden tify ing as a fem inist o r accep ting fem inist values w as never achieved. T hese w om en w ere sim ply p ro v id in g w om en w ith h ea lth in fo rm ation and resources th rough a v e ry successful m o d e l of p opu lar education. T h ro u g h o u t this chap ter I have illu stra ted the com plexities inherent to u n d e rs tan d in g individual a n d collective iden tity . The m ultip le , sh ifting and overlapp ing d iscourses on the region, gender a n d fem inism w ere flu id an d p lu ral and affected h o w the w om en w ere able to u n d e rs tan d a n d experience their ow n identities a n d the groups collective identities. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 162 CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSION 5.1 CO NC LUDING COM MENTS T h ro u g h th is case s tu d y I have been able to d o cum en t a social history o f N orthern w o m e n 's experiences as regional w om en health activists and how those efforts con tribu ted to th e larger C anadian w om en 's health m ovem ent. W om en in C anada have b e en o rgan iz ing a round w om en's health issues since the 1970s. This case study w ith its focus o n regionalism and how i t im pacted o n fem inist iden tity and the w o m en 's h ea lth w o rk undertaken ad d s a n ew d im ension to the picture o f the larger w o m en 's h ea lth m ovem ent. I have a rg u ed a fem in ist postm odern analysis allow s u s to u n d e rs tan d the complexities of the w o m en 's groups' p rax is and identities as be ing con tingen t on the m ultip le d iscourses w h ich w ere contextual to the tim e a n d p lace in w hich the w om en organized. As p a r t o f th is social h istory of the W om en an d H ealth Sub-com mittee, W HAG, W H EP a n d W H IN , I undertook an analysis of w o m en 's organizing efforts pay ing specific a tten tio n to how regional iden tity a n d concerns shaped the northw estern O n ta rio w o m en 's health m ovem ent. A m ong th e them es which w ere explored in th is con tex t w ere the regional and fem in ist d iscourses o n identity, b o ü i indiv idual a n d collective, the politics of w om en 's o rgan iz ing an d how these intersected w ith in d iv id u a l a n d collective identity . I exam ined how the g roups developed a n evo lv ing a lternative structure an d process; h o w the groups u se d consensus fo r decision-m aking; how health issues becam e defined as N orthern Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 w om en 's health issues; a n d how funding issues affected the g roups organizing goals a n d outcom es. M oreover, th roughou t the thesis I have m ain tained a critical stance in exam ining th e tensions and pow er strugg les w hich w ere central to both understand ing the collective identity of the w om en 's groups as w ell as their w om en 's organizing efforts. The w om en a n d the w om en's groups experienced their identities in multiple, sh ifting an d overlapp ing w ays as was ev idenced th ro u g h the deta iled comments from the interview s a n d focus group. W om en experienced contradictions in their iden tity w hen s itu a tin g them selves in th e regionzd context, w h e n attem pting to u n d e rs tan d their fem in ist identities (both in the indiv idual and collective sense), and in their politics, or day-to -day experiences of o rgan iz ing in no rthw estern Ontario. This flu id ity of iden tity confirm s that it is usefu l to use a postm odern analysis as bo th Beagan (1996) a n d Fraser (1992) suggest fo r understand ing the complexities at w o rk as w om en define the ir praxis in tiiese w o m en 's groups. All of the w o m en involved shared a s tro n g sense of a collective regional identity . There w as a s tro n g conunitm ent o n behalf of each of the g roups to share, p rov ide an d leam a b o u t w om en 's health issues as specific to the reg ion as well as in the broader con tex t of the larger w o m en 's health project. A s Fraser (1992) contends, identity d iscourses a re plural and d ep en d en t on the specific location, time an d context th rough w h ich they are being nego tia ted . A collective fem inist identity w as contradictory fo r th e w om en as the in terv iew s reveal. Each of th e w om en who Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 164 were involved w ith the w om en 's health o rg an iz in g efforts had com e to their com m itm ent on w o m en 's h ea lth from a different s ta rtin g point. N otions o f fem inist identity w ere n o t a lw ays sh a red an d a com m itm ent to bu ild ing a collective fem inist identity w as o n ly w itnessed in the w ork of W H A G . In all probability , th is w as because the g ro u p began as g rassroots and w ere ab le to operate w ith in th e political and ind iv idual constra in ts o f no external fund ing . They w ere sm all a n d tightly cohesive because o f their sh a red fem inist analysis a n d atten tion to process. For WHEP an d W H IN , a collective fem inist identity w a s m ore difficult to achieve. The groups w ere la rge , w ith reg ional m em bersh ip sp an n in g several h u n d re d s of kilom eters. F u rth e r, they w ere caugh t up in the fu n d in g gam e w hich req u ired th a t they be h igh ly a tten tive to the service they w ere p ro v id in g to reg ional w om en. A lthough there w a s a com m itm ent on the p a r t o f all g roups to a n a lternative structure an d process, contradictory and u n d efin ed boundaries led to tensions over these alternatives fo rm s for th e w om en involved. Tensions h av in g to do w ith fund ing w ere con tin u o u s as the g ro u p s evolved. This in p a rt reflects how the g ro u p s m atured a n d g rew in num ber a n d requ ired significant fu n d s to reach the m any com m unities of no rthw estern O ntario . The region w as a lw ays presen ted as central to this p a rticu la r case study because o f the distance be tw een conununities, the isolation experienced by w om en liv in g in the regional com m unities, and th e social and econom ic im plications of liv ing and organizing in a h in te rlan d region. Pow er rela tions w ere m ost astutely u n d e rs to o d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 165 by the w om en in term s of their reg iona l identity . H ow ever, it w as m ost difficult for the w om en to u n d e rs ta n d and conceptualize the m icro pow er relations w hich existed w ith in th e ir o rgan iz ing efforts as a resu lt of the m u ltip le social locations they occupied. C om m on to w o m en 's g roups o rgan iz ing in this p a rticu la r tim e frame, little analysis w as done by the w om en o n the in ternal functioning a n d pow er relations as experienced b o th by a n d w ith in th e g roups. The general understand ing of the w om en w as one w h ich focused o n th e 'g eneric ' o r 'essen tia l' w om an w ho w as taken to be pow erless in re la tion to the larger, in this case, m edical system . Differences am o n g and betw een w o m en w ere overlooked in favor o f p rom oting w om an as a single unifying category fo r analysis except w hen the issu e of regionalism w as central. W hen the g ro u p s defined them selves by their reg ional identity , it w as clear w h ich differences (including p o w e r relations) a h in te rlan d identity evoked. A lthough acknow ledged in term s o f th e ir regional collective identity , one prob lem w hich faced the no rthw estern O n ta rio w om en 's g ro u p s w as their n a rro w consideration of d ifferences or the p o w e r relations w h ich accom pany them in the com plex web of social relations. As a resu lt, tensions ex isted betw een som e of the w o m e n w hich cam e o u t in their experiences w ith u s in g consensus a decision­ m ak in g m odel. In term s o f the successes o f th e w om en 's o rgan iz ing efforts, all of the w o m e n 's groups w ere notable in th e ir achievem ent of p ro v id in g thousands of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 166 w om en across no rthw este rn O ntario w ith health information, resources and choices. The w om en involved w ere em pow ered to m ake ind iv idual a n d com m im ity based changes w hich resu lted from their im proved understand ing of the social determ inants of w om en 's health . Further, the w o m e n w ho w ere active a t the Board level learned to w ork w ith alternative fram es fo r organizing a n d use consensus for decision-m aking, to w o rk collectively, to lobby and m ake changes in their com m unities, region, a n d province, and to effectively organize w om en and share w om en 's hea lth resources across the vast d istances of the N orthw est. M oreover, th is case s tu d y illustra tes h o w tiiese regional w o m en 's h ealth g roups constructed alternative a n d com plem entary discourses o n health and w o m en 's organizing w hich bo th fed in to , a n d evolved from the discourses of the la rger w om en 's health m ovem ent. Finally, by docum en ting this social h isto ry of northw estern O ntario w om en's health organizing efforts it is m y hope th a t I have h ighlighted th e significant social, political an d m edical im pacts that the four w o m en 's health g roups h ad on the region. In a d d itio n to th e definitive social im pacts of the w om en 's groups on the reg ion it is essential to recognize and celebrate the p rofound personal gains and successes th a t the w om en experienced th ro u g h o u t the ir involvem ent w ith w om en's h ealth organizing. All of the w om en stressed th e im portan t ro le the w om en's g roups h ad o n their ind iv idua l lives in te rm s of personal learning, growth, persistence a n d streng th a n d they were certain th a t their involvem ent w ith regional Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 167 w om en 's health o rgan iz ing h a d positively influenced a n d changed their lives. T his w as further dem onstra ted in th e ir continued com m itm ent to w om en 's health issues in northw estern O ntario as m any continue to o rgan ize a n d w ork tow ards educa ting a n d em pow ering regional w om en th rough various con tem porary w om en 's h ea lth initiatives^’. This thesis is in pa rt, a celebration of th e w o m en 's health o rgan iz ing efforts in no rthw estern O ntario . 5.2 DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH This thesis po in ts to a n um ber of directions in w h ich future research w o u ld be valuable. F irst, I w as unab le considering the scope of th is project to look a t th e specific w ays in w hich these w om en 's groups actively resisted the dom inan t m edical discourses of m edicine an d science. This w o u ld be a n im portan t area fo r fu tu re study as w om en h ea lth activists have p ro d u ced a v a s t literature on w om en 's resistance to m edicalizaflon. I t w o u ld be insightful to exam ine how th is particu lar case study of w om en 's health organizing in n o rth w este rn O ntario w as actively resisting trad itional d iscourses o n health and m edicine by undertak ing a d iscourse analysis of the e igh teen w orkshop k its p roduced b y W H EP an d W HIN from 1982 un til 1992. It w o u ld be in teresting to analyze how the alternative discourses o n w om en 's health issues evo lved as the w om en's g roups m atu red an d refined th e ir 39 Som e of the w om en are cu rren tly involved (or have b e en since their involvem ent w ith W HIN) w ith the O ntario W om en's H ealth N e tw o rk (OW hN), the N orthw estern O n tario B reast Screening Program a n d v arious other regional w om en 's health initiatives. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168 analysis of w o m e n 's health. Further, I w as unable to ad d ress the ways in w h ich w om en have w o rk ed to construct a lte rna tive discourses a ro u n d health , h ea lth p rom otion an d education. The prim ary a im o f the w om en 's g roups looked a t in th is particu lar case s tu d y w as to provide w o m e n w ith inform ation, resources and u ltim ate ly , choices fo r w om en 's health. The d ev elopm en t of these g roups took place in a specific social a n d cultu ral tim e fram e w h e re health prom otion discourses w ere experiencing changes in their approach to u n d e rs tan d in g the social determ inants of health . These alternative health p rom o tion approaches stan d in contrast to the trad itional biom edical discourses of health . H ow d id these alternative d iscourses affect the w om en 's groups, health activ ists and fem inists in defining a n a lternative w o m en 's health discourse? F u rther, how have the health p rom otion a n d w om en 's health d iscourses overlapped to sh ift dom inant u n d ers tan d in g s of health? It w ou ld also be useful g iven th e Limited analysis o n the w o m en 's health m ovem ent in C anada , to exam ine o ther regional w om en 's health groups across the country in o rd e r to m ake com parisons betw een this specific case s tu d y a n d o ther w om en 's health groups. To date, there a re no com prehensive exam inations of the w om en 's health m ovem ent in C anada. Finally, i t is im portan t th a t c u rre n t w om en 's h e a lth organizing efforts be exam ined in lig h t of the historical con tex t from w hich the w om en 's m ovem en t has g row n up from in Canada. W om en con tinue to o rgan ize , p rovide w o m en w ith Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 169 specific health inform ation, netw ork, an d lobby governm ent fo r change in the area of w om en 's health. It w o u ld be beneficial to docum ent w o m en 's cu rren t experiences w ith health organizing a n d analyze how these efforts have evo lved over the course of the last several decad es a n d w hether technological in te rven tions have helped transcend the exigencies of distance and isolation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix A 170 A Socio-historical Exam ination o f W om en's H ealth O rganizing: The W om en's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (W HIN) in N orthw estern O ntario Sem i-Structured Interview G uide D em ographics: 1. H ow old w ere you w hen you w ere involved w ith W H IN ? 2. D id you have a partner or any ch ild ren a t th a t point? 3. W ere you a p a id em ployee o r vo lun teer of W HIN? 4. W hat o ther types of w ork d id y o u d o w hile w ith W H IN ? (M othering, w orking outside the hom e. ) 5. A t th a t po in t, w h a t w as the h ighest level of education y o u h a d achieved? 6. Now , w h a t is your h ighest level of education achieved? Interview Q uestions: 1. H ow d id y o u becom e involved w ith W HIN? 2. W hy d id you becom e involved? 3. W hat w as you r position w ith in W H IN ? 4. W hy do y o u th ink W HIN developed? 5. H ow do y o u see W H IN 's developm ent? (ie. positive, negative , other) 6. W ho w ere the initial organizers o f W HIN? 7. H ow w as W H IN structured? 8. H ow w ere decisions m ade? 9. H ow do y o u define feminism? 10. W as W H IN a fem inist organization? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix A cont. 171 11. W as there tension e ith e r betw een Board m em bers, o r betw een the Board a n d the other vo lun teers? 12. H o w w ere these ten sio n s dealt with? 13.W hy w ere the resou rce k its developed (W HEP)? 14. W ere there changes m ad e to the kits over th e course o f W HIN? 15.H ow w ere decisions m ad e abou t the resource kits? 16.W ho p u t the resource k its together? 17. D ue to the large N o rth w este rn region, h o w w ere the k its distributed? 18. W ere there any p ro b lem s w ith the kits? 19. W ere the kits beneficial? H ow ? 20. H o w d id W HIN m e e t th e dem ands of the d iverse w o m en 's population? 21. H o w d id the reg ional context shape the p rocesses a n d experiences of the w om en actively involved w ith W HIN? 22.W ere the health issues facing NW Ont. d is tinc t from the health issues in larger u rb an centres? 23. H o w w ere they d ifferent? 24. H o w w ere they sim ilar? 25. H o w d id the m edical com m unity respond to W H IN ? 26. H o w w as W HIN affected by the H ealth P ro m o tio n D irectorate and its m andates? 27. H o w w as W HIN fu n d ed ? 28. D id the funding affect w h a t you did? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix A cont. 172 29. D id W H IN w o rk w ith o th er regional g roups? 30. D id W H IN see them selves as fitting in to the larger con tex t o f the C anadian W om en's H ea lth M ovem ent? 31. W hen d id W H IN dissolve? 32. W hy d id W H IN dissolve? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix B 173 C over Letter - In terv iew A Socio-historical Exam ination of W omen's Health Organizing: The W om en's Health Inform ation Network (W HIN) in Northwestern O ntario Dear Participant For m y Master of Aarts degree I am examining the history of wom en's organizing a round health in N orthw estern Ontario. Specifically, m y aim is to docum ent and analyze the Women's H ealü i Information Network (W HIN) as a wom en's group who provided health inform ation and resources to the isolated communities of N orthw estern O ntario during the 1980's. A central feature of this research project is tiie collection of sem i-structured interviews w iüi some of the w om en who founded a n d participated w ith WHIN. The aim of these interviews is to gather information on how and w hy WHIN developed and som e of the specific features of W HIN evolving in the context of Northwestern Ontario and the wom en's health m ovem en t The interviews w ill be followed up w ith a focus group, in which you will have the opportunity to participate if you so choose. Details a round the focus group w ill follow the interviews. T he interviews collected will assist m e in establishing a social history of WHIN. Wifli y ou r permission, the interview will be tape recorded. All of the inform ation provided w ül remain confidential. Your anonym ity will be protected. Personal nam es w ill only be used in the w ritten materials w ith w ritten consentfrom the individual concerned. All notes and in terview material w hen notbeing used for analysis will be sto red in a safe, secure place. U pon completion of the analysis, the m aterial obtained from the interviews will be stored in the office of Pam Wakewich, m y thesis supervisor. You m ay change your m ind a t any time during the research project and all interview m aterials will be returned to you. Following the completion of this research, the final thesis w ill be m ade available to you upon request from myself or th rough the Chancellor-Patterson Library at Lakehead University. Furfiiermore upon completion, a booklet outlin ing the efforts of WHEN w ill be given to those who participated in the study. If you agree to participate please sign the attached consent form. Thank you for your assistance. Sincerely, Barbara Parker Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. App en d ix C 174 C onsent F o rm - Interview My signa tu re o n this form ind icates th a t I agree to partic ipa te in the research project entitled: "A Socio-historical E xam ination of W om en 's H ealth O rganizing: The W om en's H ea lth Inform ation N e tw o rk (WHIN) in N orthw estern O ntario" conducted by B arbara Parker, MA C an d id a te , D epartm ent o f Sociology, L akehead University. M y signa tu re also indicates th a t I u nderstand th e following: 1) I m ay w ith d raw from the p ro jec t a t any tim e an d a ll interview m aterials will be re tu rn e d to me. 2) M y anonym ity w ill be p ro tec ted . YES [ ] N O [ ] 3) There is n o risk of harm to m y se lf by participating. 4) All verbal inform ation p ro v id ed b y m e will be h e ld in confidence fo r a t least seven years. The w ritten d ocum en ts and m aterials p rov ided by m e w ill be re tu rn ed u p o n com pletion o f th e research project. 5) U pon com pletion of the s tu d y , I w ill receive a book let about the efforts of W HIN com piled by Barbara P arker. As well, 1 m ay access the final thesis through the library a t Lakehead U niversity. Participant's N am e Participant's S ignature Date Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix D 175 List of O pen-ended Interview s Q uoted in the Text The fo llow ing is a list of the open-ended in terv iew s q u o ted in the text. Basic chronological d a ta o n the partic ipan ts organizing involvem ent is p rov ided after each en try to assist the reader in contextualizing d ie partic ipan ts com m ents in the text. In terv iew #1 - W HEP project w orker, W HEP E xtension C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber - Involved for n ine years W HAG B oard M ember, W H EP C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber - Involved for ten years In terv iew #2 W HEP project w orker, W HEP E xtension C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber - Involved for n ine years W HAG B oard M ember, W HEP C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber - Involved for ten years In terv iew #3 - W HEP C oordinator, W H IN project w orker Involved off an d on for five years In terv iew #4 W HEP project w orker, W HEP Extension C oordinator, W H IN Board M em ber - Involved for n ine years W HAG B oard M em ber, W H EP C oordinator, W H IN B oard M em ber - Involved for ten years In terv iew #5 - W HIN B oard M em ber * Involved fo r seven years In terview #6 the W om en a n d H ea lth S ub-com m ittee , W H A G B oard M ember, W H IN volunteer - Involved fo r five years In terv iew #7 - W HEP C om m unity R epresentative, W H IN Board M em ber, W H IN project w orker * - Involved for n ine years In terv iew #8 W HEP C oord inator, W H IN vo lun teer Involved fo r th ree years Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix D cont. 176 Interview #9 W H E P v o lun teer, W H IN B oard M em ber, W H IN project w o rk e r Involved for six years In terv iew #10 W H IN project w o rk e r * Involved for th ree y ears In terv iew #11 th e W om en a n d H e a lth Sub-com m ittee, W H A G B oard M em ber, W HEP C oord inato r Involved for four y ears In terv iew #12- W H EP C om m unity R epresentative, W H IN B oard M em ber * Involved for n ine years In terv iew #13- W H EP C om m unity R epresentative, W H IN B oard M em ber * Involved fo r n ine y ears * d eno tes as a w o m an w ho w as living in th e reg ion while involved w ith w om en's h e a lth organizing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix E 177 Focus G roup - Sem i-structured G uide 1 .1 w ould like to begin w ith talking a b o u t bo th the positive a n d negative aspects of your experiences w orking together w ith WHIN.... o r W H EP/W H A G . 2. W here d id y o u r experiences w ith o rganizing a round w o m en 's health lead you? 3. W hat were th e concrete things th a t cam e ou t of W H IN /W H E P /W H A G ? -personal level -policy level -program m ing level 4. W hat are the positive things th a t c an be taken from these experiences? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix F 178 C over L etter - Focus G roup A Socio-historical Exam ination of W om en's H ealth Organizing: The W om en's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (WHIN) in N orthw estern O ntario Dear Partic ipan t As you are aware, for m y M aster of Arts degjree thesis 1 am exam ining the history of w om en 's organizing a ro u n d health in N orthw estern Ontario. The aim of this project is to describe and analyze the W om en's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (WHIN) as a w om en 's g roup w ho p ro v id ed h ea lth inform ation a n d resources to the isolated com m unities of N orthw estern O ntario . A t th is point, I have in terv iew ed several w om en abou t W HIN. I have collected a rich source of inform ation ab o u t W H IN from you. I w o u ld like to thank y o u for your participation an d help thus far. H ow ever, I w ould also like to hold a focus g roup w ith all die in terv iew participants. T he a im o f the focus g roup w ould be to elicit ftirther collective inform ation and com m ents on the research process, including additional ind iv idual com m ents about the in terv iew . W ith your perm ission , the focus group will be tape recorded. If a t any tim e d u rin g the focus group y o u w ish to avoid participating in the conversations you m ay rem ove yourself from die focus group. You m ay also shu t off the recorder a t any tim e d u rin g d ie focus group. A ll o f the inform ation w ill rem ain confidential. Your anonym ity w ill be protected. Personal nam es w ill only be used in the w ritten m aterials w ith w ritten consent from the indiv idual concerned. All notes, recordings an d focus g roup m aterial w hen n o tb e in g used by m yself fo r analysis will be sto red in a safe, secure place. U pon com pletion of the analysis, the m ateria l obtained from the focus group w ü l be stored in the office of P am W akewich, m y thesis supervisor. You m ay change y o u r m ind a t any tim e d u rin g the research project a n d the focus g roup m aterial contributed by you w ill n o t be used. Following the com pletion of this research, the final thesis w ill be m ade avaUable to you upon req u est through the Chancellor-Patterson Library a t Lakehead U niversity. Furtherm ore, u p o n completion, a booklet outlining the efforts of W HIN w ill be given to those w ho participated in the study . If you agree to participate, p lease sign the attached consent form. T hank you for your assistance an d interest in th is project. Sincerely, Barbara Parker Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix G 179 C onsen t Form - Focus G roup M y signature on th is fo rm indicates tiiat I agree to participate in the research project entitled "A Socio-historical Exam ination of W om en's H ealth O rganizing: The W om en 's H ealth Inform ation N etw ork (WHIN) in N orthw estern O ntario" conducted b y Barbara Parker, MA C and ida te , D epartm ent o f Sociology, L akehead University. My signatu re also indicates th a t I understand the follow ing: 1) 1 m ay w ithdraw fro m the project a t any tim e and aU in te rv iew m aterials will be returned to me. 2) My anonym ity w ill b e protected. YES [ ] N O [ ] 3) There is no risk o f h a rm to m yself by participating. 4) All verbal in fo rm ation provided by m e wUl be held in confidence for a t least seven years. The w ritte n docum ents a n d m aterials p ro v id ed by m e w ill be re tu rned upon com pletion o f the research project. 5) U pon com pletion o f the study, I will receive a booklet a b o u t the efforts of W HIN compiled b y Barbara Parker. As w ell, I m ay access the final thesis th rough the library a t L akehead University. Participants N am e Participants S ignatu re Date Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix H 180 L ist o f Participants w h o took p a r t in the Focus G roup 1. W HEP pro ject w orker, W H EP Extension C oordinator, W HIN Board M em ber Involved fo r n ine years 2. W HAG B oard M em ber, W HEP C oord inato r, W HIN B oard M em ber Involved fo r ten years 3. W HEP C oord inato r, W HIN pro jec t w orker Involved o ff an d on for five years 4. The W om en an d H ealth Sub-com m ittee, W HAG Board M em ber, W HIN vo lun teer Involved fo r five years 5. W HIN pro ject w orker * Involved fo r th ree years Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix I 181 List of Resource Kits C om piled by W H EP and W HIN taken from H ea lth N etw ork N ew s N ew sletter, S p rin g / Sum m er 1990, N um ber 16 1- W om en an d Stress: C op ing w ith N orthern L iving M odule 1. C abin Fever D eals w ith Cabin Fever an d the long w ait fo r spring. This w orkshop explores th e indiv idual feelings an d frustrations w ith the stress of cabin fever. M odule 2. Personal Stress D eals w ith personal stress, defining stress an d dealing w ith stress by rea liz ing the sources a n d causes. M odule 3. Tackling C om m unity Stress Deals w ith tack ing com m unity stress. Focuses o n com ing to term s w ith environm ental stress and relationships. M odule 4. Stress and Y our Tob Concentrates o n stress a n d your job an d looks a t the sym ptom s of job stress an d bum -out. 2. B reaking the D iet Habit: A Positive A pproach to Body Im age This w orkshop w as developed in response to the N orth A m erican pre­ occupation w ith w eight a n d the im pulse tow ards fad diets. This k it looks a t the p rob lem of dieting a n d he lps participants g e t to the root of th e problem . 3. E xploring Life Changes: A W orkshop on M enopause and Aging This w orkshop attem pts to look a t the psychological changes experienced by w om en in m enopause a n d explores d ie a ttitudes of society tow ards these w om en. C ontroversial subjects such as Estrogen Replacem ent T herapy an d su rgery a re discussed. 4. P reven ting M enstrual Stress: D em ystifying th e M enstrual Cycle M odule 1. PMS: P reventing M enstrual Stress Is a n in troduction to the topic of p rem enstrual syndrom e. T he objectives of the k it are to - exp la in the m enstrua l cycle -in troduce P.M.S. and its sym tom s -discuss m ethods of alleviating P.M.S. M odule 2. PMS: The Social Im plications Exam ines the social im plications of the label P.M.S. Job p roblem s a n d legal questions are addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix I cont. 182 5. P atien ts ' R ights an d Responsibilities: Active C onsum er Awareness M odule 1. T he R ight to be Info rm ed ab o u t D rugs & H ow to use Them Focuses o n the in telligent use of m edication. M odule 2. P a tien t's Rights Responsibilities Takes an in-depth v iew of the legal a n d m oral righ ts of the patien t. M odule 3. A ssertive Use of the H ealth C are Services Explores w ays people typically reac t w hen using h ea lth care services. Inform ation and A ssertiveness a re stressed. M odule 4. A n In troduction to A lternatives C overs alternative H ealth C are Practices. 6. C hildb irth Issues: Becoming Inform ed H elp ing to assist parents to w a d e th ro u g h the available inform ation and realize th a t p regnancy and ch ildb irth are n o t an illness. M odule 1. C h ildb irth O ptions C overs ch ildb irth options such as na tu ra l ch ildbirth , caesarean section, ep isio tom y, etc. M odule 2. A Practical G uide to P lann ing a B irth Is a practical gu ide to p lann ing a b irth . The object is to m ake people feel m ore in control. 7. Birth C ontro l: Being in C ontrol Safety a n d side effects of b irth con tro l are d iscussed as well as the cu ltural and social va lues su rround ing th e issue. M odule 1. B irth Control: The Social P ressures Focuses on the social p ressures su rro u n d in g the topic. M odule 2. B irth Control: A Personal C hoice Focuses on personal choice and explores th e various options p resen tly available in b irth control. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix I cont. 183 8. W om en a n d N utrition: P ersonal N eed s/C o n su m er Choices This k it looks a t personal n u tritio n needs an d h o w w e fulfill those needs. M odule 1. W om en and N u trition : Personal N eeds Covers w o m e n 's needs u n d e r a b ro ad range of top ics titled "W om en's N utrition". M odule 2. N utrition: A C o n su m er's A pproach Looks a t consum er aw areness and choices. Food is political. U nderlying issues a re discussed a n d consum er roles a re discussed. 9. W hat C an I Do: A R esource K it on M aking C hanges in H ealth C are Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix T 184 Definition o f H ealth and Set Of Principles taken from W H IN A nnual Report 1984-85 Pream ble We define w om en 's health from the fem inist perspective th a t has show n th a t sexism has c reated a separate class in all societies. T hrough th is analysis, the specific oppression of w om en is based in large p a rt o n the concept th a t w om en 's reproductive and sexual capacities are in fact contro lled an d ap p ro p ria ted by 'm en '. W om en 's h ea lth is therefore one of the p rim ary level's of w om en 's oppression, since h ea lth has n o t been defined by w o m en b u t by the institu tions representing m en 's pow er: the state, the church, science, m edicine, etc. H ealth is th e com plete state of physical, m en tal and social w ell being, influenced by the social, econom ic and political environm ent. In o rder to achieve th is state of w ell being, i t is essential to recognize th a t w om en m ust and w ill have to a tta in ind iv idual and collective pow er over the defin ition of w ell being a n d over the life a n d health tha t a re p a r t of tha t definition. O ur defin ition of health im plies a critical look a t our cultural, social, econom ic an d political env ironm ent and a t the system in general in o rder to encourage au tonom y and tak ing control over their h ea lth by wom en. We endorse a global, p reven tive an d collective approach th a t reg roups w om en and that identifies their com m onalities as well as the pow er rela tionsh ips inheren t to sexism w hich m aintains w om en in a system of exploitation and oppression. Principles of the N etw ork 1. To em pow er w om en ind iv idually and collectively by: -acknow ledging w om en 's know ledge and experience -validating self-help -developing a critical perspective -dem ystify ing the m edical theories and practices, bo th the trad itional and the 'a lte rnative ' 2. To be accessible to all w om en , acknow ledging the specific realities of the fo llow ing minorities: -im m igran t and visible m inority w om en -native w om en -poor w om en Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix T cont. 185 -w om en from ru ra l a nd rem o te areas -lesbians -older w om en -young w om en -francophone w om en 3. To suppo rt w om en to take control, b o th collective a n d individual, over o u r lives and to a tta in the skills a n d know ledge to m ake inform ed, critical choices ab o u t o u r health; 4. To be bilingual (French a n d English); 5. To be a non-profit netw ork; 6. To function in a non-hierarchical w ay, to share responsibilities a n d b e respectful of the au tonom y o f the participating g roups. NOTE: the rig h t to d issen t does n o t im ply the r ig h t to sabotage and to h in d e r the collective decision (practice of solidarity). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. P rim ary S ource R eferences 186 1. W om en a n d H ealth Sub-com m ittee M inutes: 1980 -1981 A pril 5 ,1980 Septem ber 21,1980 2. W H A G M inutes: 1980 -1983 M arch 14,1983 3. W H A G C onstitu tion -1983 4. O riginal W H EP Proposal -1981 W HEP C orrespondence Files W HEP M inutes: 1982 -1985 5. W HEP H ea lth N etw ork N ew s N ew sle tter 1982-1985 6. W HEP Final Report: 1986 7. W H IN A nnual Reports 1984 - 85 1985 - 86 1986 - 87 1987 - 88 1988 - 89 1989 - 90 8. W H IN B oard M inutes O ctober, 1985 9. W H IN H ea lth N etw ork N ew s N ew sle tter FaU 1985 Sum m er 1986 W inter 1987 FaU 1988 Spring, 1989 January-Jim e, Vol. 21 Spring, 1990 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Primary Source References cont. 187 N ew sp ap er Sources 10. The D ryden O bserver D ryden, O ntario W ednesday, Decem ber 26,1984 11. The C hronicle Tournai T h under Bay, O ntario S atu rday , December 22,1984 T hursday , June 2,1988 12. The Echo M anitouw adge, O ntario T hursday , October 13,1983 13. The Regional R ed Lake, O ntario A pril 25,1984 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bibliography 188 A ckelsberg, M artha A. (1988). "C om m unities, Resistance, a nd W om en 's Activism: Som e Im plications for a D em ocratic Polity." in W om en an d the Politics of E m pow erm ent. E dited by A nn Bookm an and Sandra M organ, Philadelphia: Tem ple U niversity P ress, 297-313. 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